Conjugation sexual process Britannica

On-Demand Vaccines for Bacterial Infections: A new study, published in Science Advances, describes a method to produce conjugate vaccines—which are used to prevent some of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths, according to the World Health Organization—using ground up, freeze-dried bacteria. E. coli bacteria were first engineered to produce an antigen for a pathogenic microbe of choice. Then, the researchers ripped open the cells and added in a piece of DNA encoding a carrier protein, which attaches to those antigens and helps display them to the immune system. The team turned the whole mixture into a powder that could be transported and stored at room temperature. Then, to make a dose of vaccine, they just add water. The freeze-dried tube produces the vaccine, on demand, in about one hour. As a proof of concept, the researchers manufactured vaccines that protected mice against a disease-causing bacteria, Francisella tularensis. The work was authored by researchers at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
Why It Matters: Most vaccines need to be stored at cold temperatures. This makes it difficult to transport them to parts of the world without a temperature-controlled supply chain. This study could help make vaccines accessible to a greater number of people. The technique is also very general; it can be used to make just about any conjugate vaccine that is on the market today. Conjugate vaccines are already used to prevent a lot of childhood diseases, including multiple types of bacterial meningitis, which killed an estimated 300,000 people in 2016. That’s according to a 2018 study30387-9/fulltext) in The Lancet Neurology.
Cas13a Treats SARS-CoV-2 and Flu: DNA targeting CRISPR enzymes, including Cas9 and Cas12a, can manipulate genomes with ease. But there are also CRISPR proteins that target RNA, including the Cas13 ‘family.’ Since influenza and SARS-CoV-2 are both RNA-based viruses, Cas13 can be used to target, and chop up, their genetic material. For a new study, published in Nature Biotechnology, researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, in Atlanta, used Cas13a to cut specific regions of the influenza and SARS-CoV-2 viruses. They first searched for guide RNAs that could cut these viruses in a cell culture model. Then, they packaged up an mRNA sequence encoding Cas13a, together with its ‘guides,’ and delivered them into mouse airways with a nebulizer (a device that converts liquid into a fine mist). In the mice, “Cas13a degraded influenza RNA in lung tissue efficiently when delivered after infection, whereas in hamsters, Cas13a delivery reduced SARS-CoV-2 replication and reduced symptoms.”
Why It Matters: Vaccines are great for fending off diseases. But knocking out a respiratory infection—after it has already happened—is much more challenging. This study shows that a CRISPR-based system can be programmed to target viruses, and can be easily delivered into airways with a nebulizer. This approach could likely be used to target other types of respiratory infections in the future.
Glucose Sensor Upgrade: For a new study, published in Nature Communications, researchers at the University of Toronto merged engineered cells with a standard glucose meter, expanding the number of molecules that can be measured with these common devices. Glucose test strips are typically coated with an enzyme, called glucose oxidase, that senses sugar and converts that signal into electricity. The researchers built a genetic circuit that can sense a wider array of molecules—like an antigen from a pathogenic microbe—and produce a commensurate amount of sugar. Standard glucose test strips can then be used to measure the concentration of those ‘sensed’ molecules in about an hour. The genetic circuit + glucose sensor combo was used to measure small molecules and synthetic RNAs, including “RNA sequences for typhoid, paratyphoid A and B, and related drug resistance genes” at attomolar concentrations.
Why It Matters: The ongoing pandemic has highlighted the need for scalable, rapid testing. By leveraging a household technology—glucose sensors—to detect a wider range of molecules, perhaps this study could be an entryway for synthetic biology; a way to get engineered cells into the hands of more people.
Open the Genetic Floodgates: There are many ways to “turn on” a single gene, but few options to do the same for many genes at once. The Cas12a protein, though, is uniquely suited to this purpose. For a new preprint, which was posted to bioRxiv and has not been peer-reviewed, researchers at the University of Edinburgh used a Cas12a protein from the bacterium, Francisella novicida, to activate six genetic targets at once. They encoded six crRNAs—nucleotide sequences that direct Cas12a to a genetic target—in a single piece of DNA, and swapped around their order to study how their position impacts the efficiency of gene editing. They found that the crRNA in the last position was produced in the lowest amount.
Why It Matters: Researchers have been activating specific genes in cells for decades. But only recently—in the last few years—has ‘multiplexed’ activation become simple; routine even. This new preprint is important, in my opinion, because of the depth of its experiments. The team played with the order of crRNAs, as I’ve already written, but they also tested the synergism of crRNAs. In other words, can you turn a gene on at even higher levels if you target it with two crRNAs instead of one? (Yes.)
CRISPR Clocks: The Cas9 protein cuts DNA at a steady pace. Cut…cut…cut, like a wobbly metronome. For a new study00014-3), published in Cell, researchers at the Yonsei University College of Medicine, in Seoul, Korea, used this “CRISPR clock” to record the timing of cellular events. They figured out how long it takes Cas9 to cut DNA (every DNA sequence takes a different amount of time to cut) and then sequenced the DNA to figure out the amount of time that had elapsed. The “clocks” were tested in HEK293T, a type of human liver cell, and also in mice. The clocks could be turned “on” by inflammation or heat. In one experiment, the researchers put cells with these clocks into mice, and then injected the animals with fat molecules that cause inflammation. They sequenced the cells, and found that they could determine the elapsed time, from genetic sequencing alone, with a mean error of just 7.6 percent.
Why It Matters: Biological clocks are useful for many reasons. The researchers said that their CRISPR clocks could be used to record when a pre-cancerous cell is turned into a cancer cell, for example. Scientists could expose cells to toxins, for example, and then measure the amount of time that it takes for cancerous growth to begin. The CRISPR clocks could be used to study these effects inside of living cells.
More Studies

Special Issue: 20 Years of the Human Genome

Science magazine’s issue, this week, was devoted to celebrating the “Human Genome at 20.” My recommendations: “Complicated legacies: The human genome at 20” and “Beyond DNA: The rest of the story.” Both are insightful. Link to Issue.

Biosensors

(Review) Transcription factor-based biosensor for dynamic control in yeast for natural product synthesis. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. Open Access. Link
A protein-based biosensor for detecting calcium by magnetic resonance imaging. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link

Fundamental Discoveries

A genome-wide screen in the mouse liver reveals sex-specific and cell non-autonomous regulation of cell fitness. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Photoactivatable CaMKII induces synaptic plasticity in single synapses. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link
Resolving phylogenetic and biochemical barriers to functional expression of heterologous iron-sulphur cluster enzymes. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Intercellular communication induces glycolytic synchronization waves between individually oscillating cells. PNAS. Open Access. Link
A comprehensive phenotypic CRISPR-Cas9 screen of the ubiquitin pathway uncovers roles of ubiquitin ligases in mitosis. Molecular Cell. Link00014-9)

Genetic Circuits

Ultrasensitive molecular controllers for quasi-integral feedback. Cell Systems. Link00035-1)

Genetic Engineering & Control

Small-molecule inhibitors of histone deacetylase improve CRISPR-based adenine base editing. Nucleic Acids Research. Open Access. Link
A piggyBac‐mediated transgenesis system for the temporary expression of CRISPCas9 in rice. Plant Biotechnology Journal. Link
Expanding the SiMPl plasmid toolbox for use with spectinomycin/streptomycin. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Joint universal modular plasmids (JUMP): a flexible vector platform for synthetic biology. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link

Medicine and Diagnostics

Engineering advanced logic and distributed computing in human CAR immune cells. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link
A thermostable, flexible RNA vaccine delivery platform for pandemic response. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Toolkit for quickly generating and characterizing molecular probes specific for SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid as a primer for future coronavirus pandemic preparedness. ACS Synthetic Biology. Link

Metabolic Engineering

An artificial self-assembling nanocompartment for organising metabolic pathways in yeast. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Transport engineering for improving production and secretion of valuable alkaloids in Escherichia coli. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Autophagy‐inducing peptide increases CHO cell monoclonal antibody production in batch and fed‐batch cultures. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Link
Quorum sensing-mediated protein degradation for dynamic metabolic pathway control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Metabolic Engineering. Link
(Review) Synthetic biology approaches to enhance microalgal productivity. Trends in Biotechnology. Open Access. Link00004-4)
A biological route to conjugated alkenes: Microbial production of hepta-1,3,5-triene. ACS Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
(Review) Yeast-based biosynthesis of natural products from xylose. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology. Open Access. Link

New Technology

Synthetic protein quality control to enhance full-length translation in bacteria. Nature Chemical Biology. Link
Scalable characterization of the PAM requirements of CRISPR–Cas enzymes using HT-PAMDA. Nature Protocols. Link
A platform for post-translational spatiotemporal control of cellular proteins. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
An all-to-all approach to the identification of sequence-specific readers for epigenetic DNA modifications on cytosine. Nature Communications. Open Access. Link

Protein Engineering

Computation-guided optimization of split protein systems. Nature Chemical Biology. Link
Efficient Lewis acid catalysis of an abiological reaction in a de novo protein scaffold. Nature Chemistry. Link
Periplasmic expression of SpyTagged antibody fragments enables rapid modular antibody assembly. Cell Chemical Biology. Link00011-8)

Systems Biology and Modelling

A MATLAB toolbox for modeling genetic circuits in cell-free systems. Synthetic Biology. Open Access. Link
Enzyme kinetics of CRISPR molecular diagnostics. bioRxiv. Open Access. Link
Potential landscapes, bifurcations, and robustness of tristable networks. ACS Synthetic Biology. Link
Modeling of copy number variability in Pichia pastoris. Biotechnology and Bioengineering. Link

Contraception, conscience, motherhood and possible spouse: need clarification

Vatican II Marriage Quotes

http://defendingvatican2.ca/2021/01/17/vatican-ii-marriage-quotes/
Marriage Quotes from Vatican II from the 16 major documents. Vatican Website Translation. This list contains the majority but not every reference. Due to the large variation of words used for marriage or its context, (marriage, matrimony, wedlock, married, marry, engaged, betrothed, spouse, husband, wife, family, love, children, covenant, union, mother, father, domestic church, etc.) I did skip a few or miss some. In fact, Vatican II has many many more quotes related to marriage and the married life than it does to the Eucharist (Linked Here) and Mary (Linked Here) that I complied previously. (See also modern times and culture quotes Here)
The purpose is to show how marriage fits into Vatican II overall plan. Further details can be found by going to the cited paragraphs and reading the entire section instead of just the quotation. Even though the list is very long, I hope it can be of use to gather fruit and prepare for the great sacrament of marriage. Rather than omitting passages dealing with marriage only in a metaphorical or analogical sense I have included them for a fuller picture.
The following short form abbreviations have been used to reference the 16 major documents of Vatican II.
Apostolicam Actuositatem: [AA]
Ad Gentes: [AG]
Christus Dominus: [CD]
Dignitatis Humanae: [DH]
Dei Verbum: [DV]
Gravissimum Educationis: [GE]
Gaudium et Spes: [GS]
Inter Mirifica: [IM]
Lumen Gentium: [LG]
Nostrae Aetate: [NA]
Orientalium Ecclesiarum: [OE]
Optatam Totius: [OT]
Perfectae Caritatis: [PC]
Presbyterorum Ordinis: [PO]
Sacrosanctum Concilium: [SC]
Unitatis Redintegratio: [UR]
Words followed by paragraph numbers and particular quotes I though interesting to share.
betrothals:
LG[6]
betrothed:
GS[49]
domestic:
AA[11][13]
DH[5]
GS[43][52][67]
LG[11]
marriage:
AA[11][11][11]
GS[46][46][47][47][48][48][49][49][49][49][49][50][50][50][50][52][52][52][52]
LG[48][58]
OE[18]
OT[10][10]
PC[12]
PO[16][16]
SC[77][77]
marriages:
LG[29]
OE[18][18]
married:
AA[4][11][11][11][22]
GS[47][47][48][48][48][49][49][50][51][51][52]
LG[11][29][34][35][41]
PO[6][16]
UR[6]
marry:
GS[52][87]
OE[18]
PO[16]
matrimony:
GE[3]
GS[48][48][48][49][50]
LG[11]
OT[10]
SC[77][78][78]
wed:
GS[52]
wedding:
GS[32]
wedlock:
GS[49]
LG[11]
spouse:
GS[43][48]
LG[4][6][6][64][65]
PC[2][12]
PO[16]
SC[47][85][102]
spouses:
GS[48][48][48][48][48][48][48][48][49][49][50][50][52][52][52][52][87]
LG[11]
SC[77][78][78]
child:
GS[27]
LG[57]
childhood:
AA[30][31]
children:
AA[11][11][11][11][13][30][30]
AG[11][12][12]
CD[12][14][35]
DH[5][5][14]
DV[21][25]
GE[0][0][1][1][2][3][3][3][3][6][6][6][7][7][7] [8][8][10]
GS[27][40][42][48][48][48][48][48][49][50][50][50][50][51][52][52][52][52][52][61][68][87] [87][87]
IM[10][13][17][24]
LG[11][11][11][13][14][15][19][28][32][35] [35][37][37]
OT[8]
PC[2][24]
PO[15][16][18]
SC[2]
UR[3][3][17]
children's:
AA[30]
husband:
GS[29][49][49]
LG[6]
PC[2]
husbands:
AA[11]
LG[35]
wife:
GS[49][49]
LG[7]
wives:
AA[11]
LG[35]
PO[16]
family:
AA[4][4][4][4][7][8][8][9][11][11][11][11][11] [11][16][18][27][30][30][30]
AG[1][16][16][22][41]
CD[12][16][28][34]
DH[5][6][15][15]
GE[3][3][3][3][3][3][8][9]
GS[2][3][8][24][25][26][26][29][32][32][32] [33][37][38][38][39][40][40][40][40][42][42] [42][42][43][44][45][46][46][46][47][47][48] [48][48][48][48][48][48][48][48][49][50][50] [50][50][52][52][52][52][52][52][52][52][52] [52][52][52][52][52][53][53][56][57][57][61] [63][67][69][69][71][74][75][75][77][77][86] [87][92][92][92]
IM[3][22]
LG[6][6][11][11][27][28][28][31][32][34][35] [35][35][35][51]
OE[18]
OT[3][5]
PC[15][22]
PO[6][12][17]
SC[111]
UR[2][14][23]
families:
AA[11][11][11][11][12][22]
AG[15][19][39]
CD[30]
GE[5][7][7]
GS[6][34][47][48][48][49][51][52][66][66][67] [74][74][75][75][84]
IM[14]
LG[43][43][43][69]
OE[21]
OT[2][2]
PC[1]
(m)Mother (as in the Holy Mother Church):
DV[11][19]
GE[0]
GS[43]
LG[14][15][41][42]
SC[4][14][21][60][85][102][122]
Mother (as in the Mother of God):
LG[15][46][51][52][53][54][54][54][54][55] [55][56][57][57][57][57][58][59][61][61][63] [66][66][66][66][67][67][68][69][69][69][69]
NA[3]
OE[30]
PC[25]
PO[18]
SC[103]
UR[15]
mother:
GE[3]
GS[48][52][61]
LG[6][53][53][53][53][56][56][56][56][61][63] [64][64][67]
OT[8]
SC[36][36][54][54][63][76][78]
motherhood:
GS[48]
PO[6]
mothers:
GS[67]
mother's (as in Jesus’ mother):
LG[57][57]
(F)father:
AA[2][4][4][6][29]
AG[2][2][3][4][5][5][7][7][9][11][15][25]
CD[1][1][16][28]
DH[1][10][15]
DV[1][1][2][3][4][4][13][17][21]
GE[2]
GS[1][21][22][22][24][32][39][45][48][52][78] [92][92][93]
LG[2][2][2][2][3][3][3][3][4][4][4][4][5][8][10][11][15][17][17][17][18][19][21][27][27][28] [28][28][28][28][35][36][36][39][40][40][41] [41][41][41][42][44][46][48][48][49][51][53] [56][61][63][65][66][66]
NA[2][5][5][5]
OE[9]
OT[5][8]
PC[13][14][14][25]
PO[2][2][2][2][3][5][5][5][6][8][9][12][12][14] [14][14][15][16][16][17][18][18]
SC[6][6][6][6][7][9][12][84][104]
UR[2][2][2][2][7][8][15][20][23]
fatherhood:
GS[48]
fatherland:
AA[4]
GS[93]
UR[2]
fatherly:
AA[17]
GS[24]
LG[37]
OT[3][6]
(F)fathers:
AG[3][22][42]
CD[9][9][10][16][44][44]
DH[10]
DV[8][23]
GS[69][69]
IM[19]
LG[2][6][7][16][21][23][28][43][56][56][56] [67][69][69][69]
NA[4][4]
OE[1][30][30]
OT[2][16][21]
PC[18]
PO[9][11][19]
SC[5][50][92][112][122]
UR[15][15][15][16][17][24][24][24]
Father’s
GS[40][41][93][93]
LG[57][64]
UR[24]
bride:
DV[8][23]
LG[4][6][7][9][39][41][44][46]
SC[7][78][84]
bridegroom:
SC[84]
Lumen Gentium #6 "In the old Testament the revelation of the Kingdom is often conveyed by means of metaphors. In the same way the inner nature of the Church is now made known to us in different images taken either from tending sheep or cultivating the land, from building or even from family life and betrothals, the images receive preparatory shaping in the books of the Prophets." ... "John contemplates this holy city coming down from heaven at the renewal of the world as a bride made ready and adorned for her husband." ... "Often the Church has also been called the building of God. The Lord Himself compared Himself to the stone which the builders rejected, but which was made into the cornerstone. On this foundation the Church is built by the apostles, and from it the Church receives durability and consolidation. This edifice has many names to describe it: the house of God in which dwells His family"
Lumen Gentium #7 "Christ loves the Church as His bride, having become the model of a man loving his wife as his body..."
Lumen Gentium #11 "Finally, Christian spouses, in virtue of the sacrament of Matrimony, whereby they signify and partake of the mystery of that unity and fruitful love which exists between Christ and His Church, help each other to attain to holiness in their married life and in the rearing and education of their children. By reason of their state and rank in life they have their own special gift among the people of God. From the wedlock of Christians there comes the family, in which new citizens of human society are born, who by the grace of the Holy Spirit received in baptism are made children of God, thus perpetuating the people of God through the centuries. The family is, so to speak, the domestic church. In it parents should, by their word and example, be the first preachers of the faith to their children; they should encourage them in the vocation which is proper to each of them, fostering with special care vocation to a sacred state."
Lumen Gentium #27 "A bishop, since he is sent by the Father to govern his family, must keep before his eyes the example of the Good Shepherd, who came not to be ministered unto but to minister, and to lay down his life for his sheep."
Lumen Gentium #28 "Because the human race today is joining more and more into a civic, economic and social unity, it is that much the more necessary that priests, by combined effort and aid, under the leadership of the bishops and the Supreme Pontiff, wipe out every kind of separateness, so that the whole human race may be brought into the unity of the family of God."
Lumen Gentium #29 "It is the duty of the deacon, according as it shall have been assigned to him by competent authority, to administer baptism solemnly, to be custodian and dispenser of the Eucharist, to assist at and bless marriages in the name of the Church, to bring Viaticum to the dying, to read the Sacred Scripture to the faithful, to instruct and exhort the people, to preside over the worship and prayer of the faithful, to administer sacramentals, to officiate at funeral and burial services." ... "With the consent of the Roman Pontiff, this diaconate can, in the future, be conferred upon men of more mature age, even upon those living in the married state. It may also be conferred upon suitable young men, for whom the law of celibacy must remain intact."
Lumen Gentium #31 "But the laity, by their very vocation, seek the kingdom of God by engaging in temporal affairs and by ordering them according to the plan of God. They live in the world, that is, in each and in all of the secular professions and occupations. They live in the ordinary circumstances of family and social life, from which the very web of their existence is woven. "
Lumen Gentium #32 "They also have for their brothers those in the sacred ministry who by teaching, by sanctifying and by ruling with the authority of Christ feed the family of God so that the new commandment of charity may be fulfilled by all. "
Lumen Gentium #34 "For all their works, prayers and apostolic endeavors, their ordinary married and family life, their daily occupations, their physical and mental relaxation, if carried out in the Spirit, and even the hardships of life, if patiently borne—all these become "spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ"."
Lumen Gentium #35 "In connection with the prophetic function is that state of life which is sanctified by a special sacrament obviously of great importance, namely, married and family life. For where Christianity pervades the entire mode of family life, and gradually transforms it, one will find there both the practice and an excellent school of the lay apostolate. In such a home husbands and wives find their proper vocation in being witnesses of the faith and love of Christ to one another and to their children. The Christian family loudly proclaims both the present virtues of the Kingdom of God and the hope of a blessed life to come. Thus by its example and its witness it accuses the world of sin and enlightens those who seek the truth.
Consequently, even when preoccupied with temporal cares, the laity can and must perform a work of great value for the evangelization of the world. For even if some of them have to fulfill their religious duties on their own, when there are no sacred ministers or in times of persecution; and even if many of them devote all their energies to apostolic work; still it remains for each one of them to cooperate in the external spread and the dynamic growth of the Kingdom of Christ in the world. Therefore, let the laity devotedly strive to acquire a more profound grasp of revealed truth, and let them insistently beg of God the gift of wisdom."
Lumen Gentium #41 "Furthermore, married couples and Christian parents should follow their own proper path (to holiness) by faithful love. They should sustain one another in grace throughout the entire length of their lives. They should embue their offspring, lovingly welcomed as God's gift, with Christian doctrine and the evangelical virtues. In this manner, they offer all men the example of unwearying and generous love; in this way they build up the brotherhood of charity; in so doing, they stand as the witnesses and cooperators in the fruitfulness of Holy Mother Church; by such lives, they are a sign and a participation in that very love, with which Christ loved His Bride and for which He delivered Himself up for her. A like example, but one given in a different way, is that offered by widows and single people, who are able to make great contributions toward holiness and apostolic endeavor in the Church. Finally, those who engage in labor—and frequently it is of a heavy nature—should better themselves by their human labors. They should be of aid to their fellow citizens. They should raise all of society, and even creation itself, to a better mode of existence. Indeed, they should imitate by their lively charity, in their joyous hope and by their voluntary sharing of each others' burdens, the very Christ who plied His hands with carpenter's tools and Who in union with His Father, is continually working for the salvation of all men. In this, then, their daily work they should climb to the heights of holiness and apostolic activity."
Lumen Gentium #48 "Since however we know not the day nor the hour, on Our Lord's advice we must be constantly vigilant so that, having finished the course of our earthly life, we may merit to enter into the marriage feast with Him and to be numbered among the blessed and that we may not be ordered to go into eternal fire like the wicked and slothful servant, into the exterior darkness where 'there will be the weeping and the gnashing of teeth'."
Lumen Gentium #51 "For all of us, who are sons of God and constitute one family in Christ, as long as we remain in communion with one another in mutual charity and in one praise of the most holy Trinity, are corresponding with the intimate vocation of the Church and partaking in foretaste the liturgy of consummate glory"
Lumen Gentium #58 "In the public life of Jesus, Mary makes significant appearances. This is so even at the very beginning, when at the marriage feast of Cana, moved with pity, she brought about by her intercession the beginning of miracles of Jesus the Messiah."
Sacrosanctum Concilium #77 "The marriage rite now found in the Roman Ritual is to be revised and enriched in such a way that the grace of the sacrament is more clearly signified and the duties of the spouses are taught. "If any regions are wont to use other praiseworthy customs and ceremonies when celebrating the sacrament of matrimony, the sacred Synod earnestly desires that these by all means be retained". Moreover the competent territorial ecclesiastical authority mentioned in Art. 22, 52, of this Constitution is free to draw up its own rite suited to the usages of place and people, according to the provision of Art. 63. But the rite must always conform to the law that the priest assisting at the marriage must ask for and obtain the consent of the contracting parties."
Gaudium et Spes #46 "Of the many subjects arousing universal concern today, it may be helpful to concentrate on these: marriage and the family, human progress, life in its economic, social and political dimensions, the bonds between the family of nations, and peace."
Gaudium et Spes #47 "The well-being of the individual person and of human and Christian society is intimately linked with the healthy condition of that community produced by marriage and family." ... "All these situations have produced anxiety of consciences. Yet, the power and strength of the institution of marriage and family can also be seen in the fact that time and again, despite the difficulties produced, the profound changes in modern society reveal the true character of this institution in one way or another." ..."In addition, married love is too often profaned by excessive self-love, the worship of pleasure and illicit practices against human generation." ... "Therefore, by presenting certain key points of Church doctrine in a clearer light, this sacred synod wishes to offer guidance and support to those Christians and other men who are trying to preserve the holiness and to foster the natural dignity of the married state and its superlative value."
Gaudium et Spes #48 "The intimate partnership of married life and love has been established by the Creator and qualified by His laws, and is rooted in the conjugal covenant of irrevocable personal consent. Hence by that human act whereby spouses mutually bestow and accept each other a relationship arises which by divine will and in the eyes of society too is a lasting one. For the good of the spouses and their off-springs as well as of society, the existence of the sacred bond no longer depends on human decisions alone. For, God Himself is the author of matrimony, endowed as it is with various benefits and purposes. All of these have a very decisive bearing on the continuation of the human race, on the personal development and eternal destiny of the individual members of a family, and on the dignity, stability, peace and prosperity of the family itself and of human society as a whole. By their very nature, the institution of matrimony itself and conjugal love are ordained for the procreation and education of children, and find in them their ultimate crown. Thus a man and a woman, who by their compact of conjugal love "are no longer two, but one flesh" (Matt. 19:ff), render mutual help and service to each other through an intimate union of their persons and of their actions. Through this union they experience the meaning of their oneness and attain to it with growing perfection day by day. As a mutual gift of two persons, this intimate union and the good of the children impose total fidelity on the spouses and argue for an unbreakable oneness between them.
Christ the Lord abundantly blessed this many-faceted love, welling up as it does from the fountain of divine love and structured as it is on the model of His union with His Church. For as God of old made Himself present to His people through a covenant of love and fidelity, so now the Savior of men and the Spouse of the Church comes into the lives of married Christians through the sacrament of matrimony. He abides with them thereafter so that just as He loved the Church and handed Himself over on her behalf, the spouses may love each other with perpetual fidelity through mutual self-bestowal.
Authentic married love is caught up into divine love and is governed and enriched by Christ's redeeming power and the saving activity of the Church, so that this love may lead the spouses to God with powerful effect and may aid and strengthen them in sublime office of being a father or a mother. For this reason Christian spouses have a special sacrament by which they are fortified and receive a kind of consecration in the duties and dignity of their state. By virtue of this sacrament, as spouses fulfil their conjugal and family obligation, they are penetrated with the spirit of Christ, which suffuses their whole lives with faith, hope and charity. Thus they increasingly advance the perfection of their own personalities, as well as their mutual sanctification, and hence contribute jointly to the glory of God.
As a result, with their parents leading the way by example and family prayer, children and indeed everyone gathered around the family hearth will find a readier path to human maturity, salvation and holiness. Graced with the dignity and office of fatherhood and motherhood, parents will energetically acquit themselves of a duty which devolves primarily on them, namely education and especially religious education.
As living members of the family, children contribute in their own way to making their parents holy. For they will respond to the kindness of their parents with sentiments of gratitude, with love and trust. They will stand by them as children should when hardships overtake their parents and old age brings its loneliness. Widowhood, accepted bravely as a continuation of the marriage vocation, should be esteemed by all. Families too will share their spiritual riches generously with other families. Thus the Christian family, which springs from marriage as a reflection of the loving covenant uniting Christ with the Church,(9) and as a participation in that covenant, will manifest to all men Christ's living presence in the world, and the genuine nature of the Church. This the family will do by the mutual love of the spouses, by their generous fruitfulness, their solidarity and faithfulness, and by the loving way in which all members of the family assist one another."
Gaudium et Spes #49 "The biblical Word of God several times urges the betrothed and the married to nourish and develop their wedlock by pure conjugal love and undivided affection.(10) Many men of our own age also highly regard true love between husband and wife as it manifests itself in a variety of ways depending on the worthy customs of various peoples and times.
This love is an eminently human one since it is directed from one person to another through an affection of the will; it involves the good of the whole person, and therefore can enrich the expressions of body and mind with a unique dignity, ennobling these expressions as special ingredients and signs of the friendship distinctive of marriage. This love God has judged worthy of special gifts, healing, perfecting and exalting gifts of grace and of charity. Such love, merging the human with the divine, leads the spouses to a free and mutual gift of themselves, a gift providing itself by gentle affection and by deed, such love pervades the whole of their lives:(11) indeed by its busy generosity it grows better and grows greater. Therefore it far excels mere erotic inclination, which, selfishly pursued, soon enough fades wretchedly away.
This love is uniquely expressed and perfected through the appropriate enterprise of matrimony. The actions within marriage by which the couple are united intimately and chastely are noble and worthy ones. Expressed in a manner which is truly human, these actions promote that mutual self-giving by which spouses enrich each other with a joyful and a ready will. Sealed by mutual faithfulness and hallowed above all by Christ's sacrament, this love remains steadfastly true in body and in mind, in bright days or dark. It will never be profaned by adultery or divorce. Firmly established by the Lord, the unity of marriage will radiate from the equal personal dignity of wife and husband, a dignity acknowledged by mutual and total love. The constant fulfillment of the duties of this Christian vocation demands notable virtue. For this reason, strengthened by grace for holiness of life, the couple will painstakingly cultivate and pray for steadiness of love, large heartedness and the spirit of sacrifice.
Authentic conjugal love will be more highly prized, and wholesome public opinion created about it if Christian couples give outstanding witness to faithfulness and harmony in their love, and to their concern for educating their children also, if they do their part in bringing about the needed cultural, psychological and social renewal on behalf of marriage and the family. Especially in the heart of their own families, young people should be aptly and seasonably instructed in the dignity, duty and work of married love. Trained thus in the cultivation of chastity, they will be able at a suitable age to enter a marriage of their own after an honorable courtship."
Gaudium et Spes #50 "Marriage and conjugal love are by their nature ordained toward the begetting and educating of children. Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and contribute very substantially to the welfare of their parents. " ... "Marriage to be sure is not instituted solely for procreation; rather, its very nature as an unbreakable compact between persons, and the welfare of the children, both demand that the mutual love of the spouses be embodied in a rightly ordered manner, that it grow and ripen. Therefore, marriage persists as a whole manner and communion of life, and maintains its value and indissolubility, even when despite the often intense desire of the couple, offspring are lacking."
Gaudium et Spes #52 "Parents or guardians should by prudent advice provide guidance to their young with respect to founding a family, and the young ought to listen gladly. At the same time no pressure, direct or indirect, should be put on the young to make them enter marriage or choose a specific partner." ... "All those, therefore, who exercise influence over communities and social groups should work efficiently for the welfare of marriage and the family." ... "Christians, redeeming the present time and distinguishing eternal realities from their changing expressions, should actively promote the values of marriage and the family, both by the examples of their own lives and by cooperation with other men of good will. " ... "Those too who are skilled in other sciences, notably the medical, biological, social and psychological, can considerably advance the welfare of marriage and the family along with peace of conscience if by pooling their efforts they labor to explain more thoroughly the various conditions favoring a proper regulation of births."
Presbyterorum Ordinis #6 "Although they have obligations toward all men, priests have a special obligation to the poor and weak entrusted to them, for our Lord himself showed that he was united to them, and their evangelization is mentioned as a sign of messianic activity. With special diligence, attention should be given to youth and also to married people and parents. It is desirable that these join together in friendly meetings for mutual aid in leading more easily and fully and in a Christian manner a life that is often difficult. Priests should remember that all religious, both men and women, who certainly have a distinguished place in the house of the Lord, deserve special care in their spiritual progress for the good of the whole Church. Finally, and above all, priests must be solicitous for the sick and the dying, visiting them and strengthening them in the Lord."
Presbyterorum Ordinis #16 ".. indeed, it is not demanded by the very nature of the priesthood, as is apparent from the practice of the early Church and from the traditions of the Eastern Churches. where, besides those who with all the bishops, by a gift of grace, choose to observe celibacy, there are also married priests of highest merit. This holy synod, while it commends ecclesiastical celibacy, in no way intends to alter that different discipline which legitimately flourishes in the Eastern Churches. It permanently exhorts all those who have received the priesthood and marriage to persevere in their holy vocation so that they may fully and generously continue to expend themselves for the sake of the flock commended to them." ... "In this way they profess themselves before men as willing to be dedicated to the office committed to them-namely, to commit themselves faithfully to one man and to show themselves as a chaste virgin for Christ and thus to evoke the mysterious marriage established by Christ, and fully to be manifested in the future, in which the Church has Christ as her only Spouse. They give, moreover, a living sign of the world to come, by a faith and charity already made present, in which the children of the resurrection neither marry nor take wives."
Apostolicam Actuositatem #4 "This plan for the spiritual life of the laity should take its particular character from their married or family state or their single or widowed state, from their state of health, and from their professional and social activity. They should not cease to develop earnestly the qualities and talents bestowed on them in accord with these conditions of life, and they should make use of the gifts which they have received from the Holy Spirit."
Apostolicam Actuositatem #11 "Since the Creator of all things has established conjugal society as the beginning and basis of human society and, by His grace, has made it a great mystery in Christ and the Church (cf. Eph. 5:32), the apostolate of married persons and families is of unique importance for the Church and civil society.
Christian husbands and wives are cooperators in grace and witnesses of faith for each other, their children, and all others in their household. They are the first to communicate the faith to their children and to educate them by word and example for the Christian and apostolic life. They prudently help them in the choice of their vocation and carefully promote any sacred vocation which they may discern in them.
It has always been the duty of Christian married partners but today it is the greatest part of their apostolate to manifest and prove by their own way of life the indissolubility and sacredness of the marriage bond, strenuously to affirm the right and duty of parents and guardians to educate children in a Christian manner, and to defend the dignity and lawful autonomy of the family. They and the rest of the faithful, therefore, should cooperate with men of good will to ensure the preservation of these rights in civil legislation and to make sure that governments give due attention to the needs of the family regarding housing, the education of children, working conditions, social security, and taxes; and that in policy decisions affecting migrants their right to live together as a family should be safeguarded."
Inter Mirifica #3 "It is, therefore, an inherent right of the Church to have at its disposal and to employ any of these media insofar as they are necessary or useful for the instruction of Christians and all its efforts for the welfare of souls. It is the duty of Pastors to instruct and guide the faithful so that they, with the help of these same media, may further the salvation and perfection of themselves and of the entire human family. In addition, the laity especially must strive to instill a human and Christian spirit into these media, so that they may fully measure up to the great expectations of mankind and to God's design."
Inter Mirifica #14 "Similarly, effective support should be given to good radio and television programs, above all those that are suitable for families. Catholic programs should be promoted, in which listeners and viewers can be brought to share in the life of the Church and learn religious truths. An effort should also be made, where it may be necessary, to set up Catholic stations. In such instances, however, care must be taken that their programs are outstanding for their standards of excellence and achievement."
Unitatis Redintegratio #6 "Church renewal has therefore notable ecumenical importance. Already in various spheres of the Church's life, this renewal is taking place. The Biblical and liturgical movements, the preaching of the word of God and catechetics, the apostolate of the laity, new forms of religious life and the spirituality of married life, and the Church's social teaching and activity - all these should be considered as pledges and signs of the future progress of ecumenism."

My DD on $ATNM - A Company Making Cancer More Survivable

Acids and bases

[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/png/Periodic_Table_of_Elements_w_Chemical_Group_Block_PubChem.png ] or [https://ptable.com/#Properties ]
If we are going off the Lewis definition of acids as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair donors, the problems of ion solubility (mostly H+ and OH- ions) can be appropriately distanced from the actual behavior of hydronium (H3O+) or hydroxide (OH-) complexes in water. In other words, we first ask what species exist in what concentrations in the solution of interest, then what will happen between the different species. However, we cannot completely separate the Brønsted-Lowry and Lewis definitions due to Le Chatelier’s principle, which would state that the presence of the products of dissociation tend to prevent additional dissociation events. However, if product ions start being consumed in other reactions, the effective result is to shift the equilibrium back towards the starting materials, and additional dissociation events will then become energetically favorable. The result of this is that the behavior of chemical reactions is best contemplated holistically and with a full set of executive functionality instead of being taught as a series of disconnected fragments that imply the existence of a much higher level of precision than is actually ever possible and must be stitched together by students working without the benefit of fully developed brains. As I go through the process of writing out this series of posts, I am getting the definite impression that the progress that has been made in our understanding of atoms and orbitals has mostly obsoleted the way that general chemistry is currently taught, and that the current state of teaching is centered around exams to the detriment of the students. My general chemistry education also had far too much emphasis on the Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases instead of treating these as equilibrium problems.
So and before we go any farther, let’s get pH out of the way. A lowercase “p” denotes the mathematical operation of taking the negative log of a quantity for some reason, so pH is actually the negative (base 10) log of H where H is the ionic activity of “H+” in the solution of interest. As it turns out, this is actually the activity of hydronium complexes instead of lone protons, but unless you are trying to visualize what is actually happening in the solution the two can be treated as equivalent. Of course, if you’ve gotten so obsessed with applying equations to chemical processes that you are willing to ignore the three-dimensional picture, you’re probably also not doing anything of value, but anyway. In most cases, pH can be calculated with the concentration of hydronium in moles per liter instead of a more rigorous activity measurement, so in other words pH is mostly equal to -log([H3O+]). [I should also note that the difference between the concentration of hydronium and the concentration of protons is not particularly significant in acid-base problems because the protons in water will either react with other species or form hydronium. If you are calculating the concentration of protons in water at any given time, you are also calculating the concentration of hydronium.] If you’re willing to get pedantic there is a nearly infinite amount of additional complexity that can be brought in here, but I’m not emotionally invested in this and see no reason to care. Proceeding with pH=-([H3O+]), you may notice that we are only calculating the acidity of our solution and not the basicity.
However, due to the spontaneous dissociation/autoionization of water, acidity and basicity are closely related to each other. In a volume of water, the multiplication product of the concentrations in moles per liter of hydronium/H3O+ and hydroxide/OH- is a constant. At 25 degrees Celsius, this constant (Kw) is equal to 1.0x10^-14, and Kw=[H3O+]*[OH-]. In this notation scheme, the square brackets denote concentration in moles per liter, and square brackets are usually but not always moles per liter. In any case, the reason to care is that the assumptions here mostly hold true once we start adding additional chemical species to the volume of water we started with. As the number of ions in solution increase, other issues start to arise, but mostly what you need to remember is that this is a simplified model and not an absolute definition of what is happening on the molecular level. Where this model is valuable is in relating the concentration of hydronium to the concentration of hydroxide (both in moles per liter) in a mostly reliable manner, which means that if we know a value for one at a given time we can calculate the value of the other one. So, if you have a concentration of hydroxide and you want to know the pH, you can use Kw to calculate the concentration of hydronium, then take the negative base 10 log of the result to get to pH. The addition of the logarithm allows the comparison of numbers with vastly different orders of magnitude but also brings quite a bit of confusion. In any case, using these assumptions we can define interrelated pH and pOH scales to measure acidity and basicity as the density of hydronium and hydroxide in solution. You may notice that this aligns well with the Lewis definitions, although we are not considering any other possible Lewis acids or bases.
Once you get into organic chemistry and start trying to do reactions, having a trace amount of ions in your reaction mixture doesn’t get you anywhere, and all of the assumptions as previously defined get thrown out of the window. At high concentrations of ions/high ionic activities (which are mostly equivalent concepts), we get back to the idiosyncratic and non-intuitive behavior that we expect to see in chemistry. These conditions also favor the Lewis definitions, and if it seems like I am being a bit heavy-handed in mentioning the advantages of teaching the Lewis definitions to students as early as possible you would be quite correct. Fully embracing the Lewis definitions will require the more neurotic or tradition-bound individuals among the chemical community to let go of literally centuries of work that turns out not to be valid, but as before I have no particular emotional investment in Brønsted-Lowry and would much prefer to be taught the concepts in a way that actually makes sense.
In my list of topics I am supposed to cover acid-base equilibrium, which in the context of water (aqueous solutions) is how hydronium and hydroxide move into and out of solution. First looking at “HA” or a proton donor, we can either have the acidic proton attached to the conjugate base or not. The Lewis basic strength of “A-” determines how tightly the H+ is bonded and therefore how accessible it is to the surrounding water molecules. If the H+ is bonded too tightly, there is no chance of a water molecule ever removing it, and the compound is probably not going to be participating in any aqueous acid-base reactions. At this point I am really wanting to bring in some more organic chemistry concepts and talk about an example like ethanol (CH3CH2OH) as a compound with three distinct types of protons in three different chemical environments, with the hydrogen on the oxygen end (Eth-OH) as well as the two lone pairs on the oxygen being the most interesting electron pair acceptors and donors, but the current general chemistry syllabus as defined by the American Chemical Society (ACS) prevents this. Moving on to “BOH” in water, the strength of the bond between “B+” and hydroxide is also going to be important. As an example, the hydroxl group on ethanol has essentially no chance of being removed in an aqueous solution unless something quite energetic/violent happens, but the hydroxl proton can be stripped off or another proton can bond to one of the lone pairs on oxygen depending on the reaction conditions.
In the context of this post, I am basically trying to get into a decent position to talk about buffers. These are modeled by the Henderson Hasselbalch equation and are usually a combination of a weakly proton-donating “HA” with the “A-” part of that molecule paired with a positively charged counterion (counter-cation possibly). As an example cation, let’s choose sodium (Na+), which is a terrible electron pair acceptor because it is already in a noble gas valence electron configuration and adding electrons will be destabilizing. So, we can basically ignore the sodium ions unless we are interested in the total ionic activity for some reason, and at the same time the charges all balance out. If we select the correct “A-” and adjust the relative amounts of “HA” and “NaA”, we end up with a mixture that starts out at a pH that can be predicted via calculation. This is normal when adding proton or hydroxide donors to water, but where buffers are different is the ability to absorb proton or hydroxide inputs without the pH changing much. This is because of the presence of both protonated “HA” and deprotonated “A-” and is useful in situations were the molecules under study cannot tolerate large pH swings, which usually means proteins and other biological molecules. Selecting a buffer requires the concept of the constant of acidic dissociation (Ka) and the negative log of the same (pKa), but between this and Henderson Hasselbalch equation you should have plenty of keywords to play with. I am also supposed to be covering titrations here, but since these are as obsolete as Brønsted-Lowry and really shitty to have to carry out in the lab I’m not going to bother.

General chemistry wrap-up and moving to organic

Chemical bonding and molecular structure

[https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/png/Periodic_Table_of_Elements_w_Chemical_Group_Block_PubChem.png ]
As with literally everything else, the most appropriate way to think about chemical bonding depends heavily on the context. Generally speaking, chemical bonds are when atoms stick together and require a significant energy input to be broken back apart. Lower energy states tend to be more stable, while higher energy states tend to be less stable. Energy is delivered to molecules mostly as heat, which means molecules colliding with each other and exchanging velocity and hence kinetic energy. Photon absorption is another possibility, but the mechanics behind it are more complicated and can only get in the way at the moment. So, chemical bonds can exist at temperatures between 0 kelvin (absolute zero, no atomic movement at all) and the conditions under which all electrons completely dissociate from the nuclei to form plasma. The strength of the bonds in question and the conditions in which they are located will determine the specifics, but obviously some chemical bonds are much more resistant to high temperature than others. Towards one end, you have compounds like hydrogen peroxide that are fully capable of spontaneously dissociating at room temperature and pressure. In about the middle you have substances like wood that will break bonds and combust under ambient conditions if supplied with an ignition source, and towards the other end you have things like concrete or rock that don’t usually burn very well. However and while combustion is a convenient, easily accessible reaction, I should note that many other reactions also exist, most of which are more complicated than applying heat in an oxygen atmosphere.
Before we get there, I should repeat that chemical bonds “glue” positively charged nuclei together with negatively charged electron density. To have a chemical bond, the valence electrons and orbitals of the bonding atoms need to combine. At one extreme, an electron can be completely transferred from one atom to another, resulting in an ionic compound. The most popular example of an ionic compound is table salt, sodium chloride/NaCl/Na+ Cl-. As can be seen, the highly electronegative chlorine atom is able to completely remove one of the valence electrons on the sodium atom, which despite the resulting charges puts both atoms into a noble gas electron configuration and is hence energetically favorable. At the other extreme, we have bonding electron density being split completely equally between the two atoms. This only occurs when two of the same atom are bonded together (H2, O2, N2, some carbon-carbon bonds, etc) and makes intuitive sense because you would not expect either of two identical atoms in identical chemical environments to be more electronegative than the other. In between these two extremes is a spectrum of bond polarization, with electron density skewed to some extent or another to the more electronegative of the two atoms. Please note that the electronegativity values I linked in the previous post do not take into account any other bonds that influence electron distribution and hence the chemical environments around the atoms in the bond of interest, so that table should be used cautiously.
From a bond strength perspective, maximizing the electron density between the two bonding atoms also maximizes the strength and minimizes the length of the bonds. To put it another way, increased electron density shields the positive charges on the nuclei from each other, allowing the nuclei to be closer together. Consequently, ionic bonds are very weak in the sense that the cations and anions can be easily pulled apart, and covalent bonds that distribute electron density evenly between two atoms are much more difficult to pull apart. For the next part, I will neglect the behavior of ionic compounds (also acids and bases, which behave similarly) to focus on covalent bonding. I am also going to neglect the polarization of covalent bonds towards more electronegative atoms because the distribution of the electron probability density inside the molecular bonding orbitals does not affect our understanding of how these orbitals form. With covalent bonds, there are two main bond types that are helpful to think about. In reality, what actually happens is that the atoms and their atomic orbitals combine to whichever state is accessible and lowest in energy, but the process of generating a set of molecular orbitals for each individual molecule is very labor intensive and does not add much to our understanding.
So, to start out with let’s examine the main organic elements: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. Hydrogen is easy to deal with because it bonds with the 1s orbital only, and the 1s orbital is a sphere. The remaining three elements have both a spherical 2s orbital and three 2p orbitals that can participate in bonding, which makes things more complicated. In terms of shape, each p-orbital can be thought of as existing in a 3D cartesian coordinate system with the nucleus at the origin. Each orbital then has two lobes parallel to the x, y, or z axes, with a nodal plane (no electron density) oriented in the other two axes. As an example, the p_x orbital will have two lobes parallel to the x axis and no electron density on the yz plane. In practice, the result will look much more like a sphere cut in half than the balloon-shaped lobes usually depicted, but that’s not all that important. I should also mention that opposite lobes have opposite polarizations, and that a + polarized p-orbital lobe on one atom does not have bonding overlap with – polarized p-orbital lobes on other atoms but will have bonding overlap with + polarized p-orbital lobes on other atoms. This becomes important later on when we get into conjugated systems and can explain some oddball bonding behavior much later on.
Anyway, I still haven’t introduced sigma and pi bonding, so let’s do that. Sigma bonds have the bonding orbitals located directly between the bonding atoms are as a result yield the strongest bonds. Pi bonds depend on the bonding overlap of p-orbitals above and below and/or to either side of the axis directly between the two atoms where a sigma bond would form. Pi bonds still put electron density in between the two nuclei and are still bonds, but cannot be as strong as a sigma bond. Since hydrogen has no valence p-orbitals, it cannot participate in pi bonding schemes, but carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are all fully capable of donating one or two p-orbitals to pi bonds. If three or more atoms in a row all have p-orbitals in the same plane, the potential exists for all of those p-orbitals to combine into one conjugated pi system, which usually offers energy advantages compared to isolated pi bonds. There is quite a bit more complexity along these lines, but this is mostly dealt with in organic chemistry.
Moving back to sigma bonds, I should first note that the number of bonds that an atom can form in most circumstances is equal to the number of unoccupied electron spaces in its valence shell. So, hydrogen can only form one bond before filling the 1s orbital, boron in theory should form five bonds but in practice is only capable of three with a completely empty p-orbital before running out of bonding volume around the small atom, carbon can form four bonds, nitrogen can form three bonds, oxygen can form two bonds, and fluorine can form one bond. During bonding, an atom will usually be thought of as “owning” a number of electrons equal to the number of its valence electrons (hydrogen one, boron three, carbon four, nitrogen five, oxygen six, fluorine seven). Due to orbital overlap, the electrons in the bonds that are in theory “owned” by the other atoms are also thought of as filling out the valence shell of the bonded atom, and in this manner the atoms in organic compounds can achieve electron configurations close to or equaling noble gas configurations despite all of the atoms in the molecule having fewer than the eight valence electrons required to actually be a noble gas or halogen anion. To put it another way, in the absence of bonding all of the atoms in organic chemistry are severely electron-deficient from a valence shell point of view, with bonding the valence shells can (mostly) all be filled without stacking a bunch of extra electrons (that don’t exist in the big picture – the number of protons and electrons is about equal) onto all of the atoms. This would also generate screamingly unstable accumulations of negative charge, so from an energy perspective bonding works out very well for most or all of the atoms involved.
At this point, I have not said anything about how bonds are actually arranged in space around an atom with both s and p valence orbitals. In the 2 shell where most of organic chemistry happens, the 2s and 2p orbitals all occupy roughly the same volume, which brings us to orbital hybridization and lone pairs. With four valence orbitals, we expect to have four bonding/molecular orbitals, each located in a distinct volume. Having a spherical 2s orbital and three p-orbitals at right angles arranged around the same nucleus is not compatible with this, and is not how atoms participate in bonding. Instead, three bonding arrangements are possible: tetrahedral (sp^3), trigonal planar (sp^2), and linear (sp). In the sp^3 case, the 2s and all of the 2p orbitals combine to form four new orbitals, each with one part s-orbital character and three parts p-orbital character. The hybridized orbitals form bonds as far apart as physically possible, resulting in a uniform bond angle of 109.5 degrees and the tetrahedral configuration. Methane (CH4) is an example of a tetrahedral compound – the sp^3 orbitals on the carbon atom bond with the 1s orbitals on the hydrogens, resulting in a perfectly symmetrical arrangement of bonds around the carbon atom. Ammonia (NH3) is also an example of a tetrahedral compound, although you might not expect that on first inspection. More properly, I should write ammonia as :NH3, which is because a nitrogen atom “owns” five valence electrons and can form three bonds. In this case, the open electron spaces are filled by the three bonding hydrogen atoms, with three nitrogen electrons participating in these bonds. The remaining two valence electrons from the nitrogen occupy the nitrogen sp^3 not already bonding with a hydrogen atom, with the absence of another positively charged nucleus meaning that the lone pair will tend to repel the electron density in the N-H bonds, pushing the hydrogens closer together on one end of the molecule and distorting the ideal 109.5 degree bond angles.
In a trigonal planar sp^2 bond scheme, one of the p-orbitals does not participate in hybridization and is free to participate in pi bonds with other atoms. The loss of one p-orbital means that there are only three hybrid orbitals, each with one part s character and two parts p character. The higher fraction of s character means that sp^2 orbitals will be lower in energy than sp^3 orbitals, although whether or not the sp^2 bond scheme is energetically favorable overall also depends on the chemical environment of the remaining non-hybridized p-orbital. Geometrically, the remaining p-orbital will tend to occupy all of the space apart from the nodal plane, pushing the other three bonds into the nodal plane at about 120 degree angles from each other. A linear sp bond scheme is quite similar to the sp^2 bond scheme, but with two p-orbitals not participating in hybridization. The s-orbital and remaining p-orbital generate two hybrid orbitals with one part s character and one part p character, so sp orbitals are the lowest in energy of any of the hybrid orbitals. With two p-orbitals at right angles taking up much of the available volume, the other bonds will default to the volume along the intersection of the nodal planes of both of the p-orbitals. Since the intersection of two planes is a line, linear bonds will tend to be 180 degrees apart.
Once we start getting into larger third row elements or the d and f blocks, things become much more chaotic and complicated. With the organic bonding mostly described here sufficient to form the basis of all biological processes, you can probably imagine the idiosyncrasies exhibited by the heavier atoms, particularly if you view the d and f orbitals as depicted here (https://i.stack.imgur.com/K5EcA.jpg ). If you are wondering why heavy metal poisoning can be so damaging to human bodies, this is much of the reason why.

Why nobody talks about all the anti nutrients in vegetables and all the issue that goes along with it?

Don't you love it when you hear how good and healthy fruits/vegetables are for you? How you need fiber and all those good vitamins/minerals which are all lacking in animal foods (check part one to see the actual truth). Let's talk about something that is usually not mentioned, the anti-nutrients present in plants.

ANTINUTRIENTS IN PLANT-BASED FOODS2.1. Lectins

Lectins, particularly abundant in plants, are proteins or glycoproteins of non-immune origin. They have the ability to bind, without modifying, to either carbohydrates or glyco-conjugates (glycoproteins, glycolipids, polysaccharides). They can successfully recognize animal cell carbohydrates, which corresponds to the Latin derivation of the word legere meaning to select [21]. Lectins have a variety of roles. They can bypass human defense system and travel all over the body causing diseases (i.e. Crohn’s disease, Coeliac-Sprue, colitis, etc.) by breaking down the surface of the small intestine [22]. When large quantities of lectins are introduced in the body, the gut wall develops holes, and intestinal permeability, causing the leaky gut syndrome. Lectins can make cells act as if they have been stimulated by insulin or cause the insulin release by the pancreas. Lectins can also cause autoimmune diseases by presenting wrong immune system codes and stimulating the growth of some white blood cells [23, 24]. This may possibly lead to cancer but lectins have not yet been recognized as cancer causing.
Not all variety of lectins are toxic or responsible for intestinal damage. Lectins can be found in plant species such as wheat, beans, quinoa, peas, etc. [25]. As grains are a common part of the birds’ diet, it has been found that birds themselves are resistant to grains lectins [26]. Acne, inflammation, migraines or joint pains can be caused by the consumption of lectins [27]. Lectins are usually found in the hull so choosing white rice can lower the lectin intake. Heating plant sources in the process of cooking can significantly lower the amount of lectins in them. White potatoes, for instance, have a higher lectin content compared to sweet potatoes [28]. Almonds are also a richer lectin source than peanuts [29].
2.2. Trypsin Inhibitors
Trypsin inhibitors occur in a wide range of foods like chickpeas, soybeans, red kidney beans, adzuki beans, mung beans and other representatives of the Leguminoseae, Solanaceae, and Gramineae families [30]. Ten percent of the world’s dietary protein is derived from grain legumes [31]. Trypsin inhibitors redound to the loss of trypsin and chymo-trypsin in the gut, thus preventing protein digestion. Excess trypsin synthesis and burden on sulfur-containing amino acids in requirement of the body are due to the release of chole-cystokinin triggered by trypsin inhibitors [32].
2.3. Alpha-amylase Inhibitors
Inhibition of α-amylase is considered a strategy for the treatment of disorders in carbohydrate uptake, by reducing insulin levels, as well as, dental caries and periodontal diseases [33]. Amylase inhibitors are substances that bind to alpha amylases making them inactive [34]. Two roles of α-amylase inhibitors have been identified. The primary function of inhibitors is protecting the seed against microorganisms and pests, and the other function is the inhibition of the endogenous α-amylase [35]. However, the instability of this inhibitor under the conditions of the gastrointestinal tract and being a very heat-liable constituent results in its failure to be used as starch blocker [36]. It is used to control human diabetes type two [37] and finds several applications in the food industry [38, 39].
2.4. Protease Inhibitors
Proteases are key cell-process-regulation enzymes that are found in all cells and tissues. Protease inhibitors are commonly present in raw cereals and legumes, especially soybean. Protease inhibitors bind to their target proteins reversibly or irreversibly. Growth inhibition, pancreatic hypertrophy [40], and poor food utilization [41] are associated with protease inhibitors’ antinutrient activity. Exopeptidases remove amino acids from the C- or N-terminus, whereas endopeptidases are capable of cleaving peptides within the molecule [42]. Grain eating birds have evolved digestive enzymes that are resistant to grain protease inhibitors [26]. In human volunteers and in animal experiments, high levels of protease inhibitors lead to an increased secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas [43].
2.5. Tannins
Plant tannins are a major group of antioxidant polyphenols found in food and beverages that attracts research interest with its multifunctional properties to human health. Tannins are oligomers of flavan-3-ols and flavan-3, 4-diols that are concentrated in the bran fraction of legumes [44]. Grapes and green tea are rich in this water-soluble polyphenol [45]. Tannins exhibit antinutritional properties by impairing the digestion of various nutrients and preventing the body from absorbing beneficial bioavailable substances [46]. Tannins can also bind and shrink proteins. Tannin-protein complexes may cause digestive enzymes inactivation and protein digestibility reduction caused by protein substrate and ionisable iron interaction [47].
2.6. Phytates
Phytates occur in several vegetable products. Seeds, grains, nuts and legumes store phosphorus as phytic acid in their husks in the form of phytin or phytate salt. Their presence may affect bioavailability of minerals, solubility, functionality and diges-tibility of proteins and carbohydrates [41]. Phytic acid is most concentrated in the bran of grains [48]. In legumes, phytic acid is found in the cotyledon layer and can be removed prior to consumption [49]. The digestive enzyme phytase can unlocked the phosphorus stored as phytic acid. In the absence of phytase, phytic acid can impede the absorption of other minerals like iron, zinc, magnesium and calcium by binding to them [50]. This results in highly insoluble salts that are poorly absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract leading to lower bioavailability of minerals. Phytates also inhibit digestive enzymes like pepsin, trypsin and amylase [51].
2.7. Goitrogens
Hypothyroidism is increasing daily worldwide as the thyroid gland is highly sensitive to stress and environmental stimuli [52]. Goitrogens interfere with iodine uptake and thus, affect thyroid function. Vegetables from the genus Brassica i.e. broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and kale are some of the goitrogen rich foods [53]. The consumption of cruciferous vegetables affects triiodothyronine (T3) and thy-roxine (T4) levels by causing hypothyroidism [54]. Concomi-tant factors can be insufficient water consumption and protein malnutrition [55].
2.8. Raffinose Oligosaccharides
Raffinose, stachyose and verbascose, all part of the Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides (RFOs), are synthesized from sucrose. Non-digestible oligosaccarides have a prebiotic effect in the lower intestine by promoting the growth of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus that inhibit pathogenic growth [56]. The absence of appropriate enzyme activity to hydrolyse RFOs (α-galactosidase) leads to the inability of humans and to digest RFOs an allow them to pass through the intestinal wall intact [51, 57]. A correlation between legumes consumption and the likelihood of intestinal discomfort has been drawn leading to symptoms like burping, abdominal pain, and bloating [57]. The presence of RFO in the daily food intake can interfere with the digestion nutrients [58]. RFO can reduce metabolizable energy and protein utilization [59]. Research has shown that RFO removal has improved the digestion of all amino acids increasing the overall nutritional value of the lupin diet [60].
2.9. Saponins
Some saponins (steroid or triterpene glycoside compounds) can be used for food while others are toxic. Saponins with a bitter taste are toxic in high concentrations and can affect nutrient absorption by inhibiting enzymes (metabolic and digestive) as well as by binding with nutrients such as zinc. Saponins are naturally occurring substances with various biological effects. In the presence of cholesterol, saponins exhibit strong hypocholesterolemic effect [61]. They can also lead to hypoglycemia [62] or impair the protein digestion, uptake vitamins and minerals in the gut, as well as lead to the development of a leaky gut [63].
2.10. Oxalates
Some organic acids can have antinutritional factors. Oxalic acid can form soluble (potassium and sodium) or insoluble (calcium, magnesium, iron) salts or esters called oxalates that are commonly found in plants i.e. leafy vegetables or syn-thesized in the body [64]. Insoluble salts cannot be processed out of the urinary tract once processed through the digestive system. Calcium oxalate can have a deleterious effect on human nutrition and health by accumulating kidney stones [65]. Cruciferous vegetables (kale, radishes, cauliflower, broccoli), as well as chard, spinach, parsley, beets, rhubarb, black pepper, chocolate, nuts, berries (blueberries, black-berries) and beans are some of the foods with high amounts of oxalates [66]. Most people can induct normal amounts of oxalate rich foods, while people with certain conditions, such as enteric and primary hyperoxaluria, need to lower their oxalate intake. In sensitive people, even small amounts of oxalates can result in burning in the eyes, ears, mouth, and throat; large amounts may cause abdominal pain, muscle weakness, nausea, and diarrhea [67].
Table 1 is revealing some food sources with the typical antinutrients contained in them as well as the amounts variables.
2.11. Exorphins
The alcohol-soluble proteins (proalimins) of cereal grains and dairy products called gliadins can be further degraded to a collection of opioid-like polypeptides named exorphins in the gastrointestinal tract [81]. Behavioral traits such as spon-taneous behavior, memory, and pain perception can be affected by the bioactivity of food-derived exorphins [82]. Exorphins can also influence gastric emptying and intestinal transit by increasing its time [83]. The digestion of milk produces alpha-casein-derived exorphins [84]. Recent research suggests that epigenetic effects of milk-derived opiate peptides may contribute to gastrointestinal dysfunction and inflam-mation in sensitive individuals [85].
Fig. (1) pinpoints some of the widely speard antinutrients in plant-based foods.
2.12. Contextual Antinutrients
Some supplements or foods rich in certain nutrients can create reactions of an antinutrient nature. For instance, calcium-rich foods can impede iron absorption. There is also a mutual antagonism between zinc and copper during the absorption process, taking place in/on the intestinal epithelium [86]. Research literature suggests that phytosterols [87] and phospholipids [88] may reduce cholesterol absorption when added to nonfat foods. Some foods can interfere with medication absorption [89]. The most well publicized food-drug interaction is that of grapefruit and a variety of drugs. Bergamottin found in grapefruit juice inactivates drug-metabolizing enzymes. This is the reason why food interaction warnings are listed on some medical labels. Studies have found that resveratrol, found in red wine and peanuts, inhibits platelet aggregation, and high intakes could increase the risk of bleeding when consumed with anticoagulant drugs [90]. Canadian researchers have documented that black tea was a more powerful enzyme inhibitor than single-ingredient herbal teas (St. John’s Wort, feverfew, cat’s claw, etc.) [91]. Another well-known food-drug interaction is that of foods containing tyramine (chocolate, beer, wine, avocados, etc.) and mono-amine oxidase inhibitors (type of antidepressant) [92]. The most medically consequential food-drug interaction is that of vitamin K-rich foods (e.g. broccoli, spinach) and Coumadin, an anticoagulant prescribed to thin the blood and prevent clots [93].
CONCLUSION
Antinutritional factors are widespread food compounds that are especially challenging for those choosing a predominantly plant-based diet i.e. vegan, vegetarians, etc. Antinutrients can exhibit beneficial health effects if present in small amounts or cause nutrient deficiencies. Uninformed consumers may deal with some misleading information when the latter is not sufficiently available. Antinutrients may induce their undesirable effects when consumed above their upper limit. Harmful effects can also be due to antinutritional breakdown products. Thus, the presence of lectins, tannins, alkaloids, and saponins, goitrogens, inhibitors, etc. in foods may induce various reactions when the consumer is presented with little knowledge related to the environmental influence on the detoxification capacity of the human organism. Classic approaches and modern agricultural biotechnological programs can serve as antinutritional removal tools. However, health risk factors can be avoided when a daily sustainable diet lying on a sound scientific basis is introduced.
Sources

There are tons of other sources I could use, you can also search for them yourself. Plenty of evidence on this.

[Discussion] Hepatic Metabolism of Oral AAS, Hepatotoxicity, and Liver Support

I know this is a long write up, the first half is biochemistry and what happens on a cellular level. The second half is more pertaining to the average AAS user, including a deeper dive into liver functioning tests and liver support. I highly recommend at least reading the second half, especially the Liver Support section.
Hepatotoxicity is a word that is frequently thrown around, everyone’s heard it, everyone thinks they know what it is, but once you ask something beyond surface level, you get a whole lot of conflicting answers. Let’s dive into it.
Overview/Background/General Information/What the fuck actually happens?
Drug Metabolism: The human body identifies almost all drugs as foreign substances and subjects them to various chemical processes to make them suitable for elimination. Drug metabolism is typically split into two phases: Phase 1 (oxidation via Cytochrome P450, reduction, and hydrolysis) tends to increase water solubility of the drug and can generate metabolites. Phase 2 further increases water solubility of the drug, inactivating metabolites, thus preparing it for excretion.

Aside: There has been a lot of questions regarding using high dose psoralens (from grapefruit juice/extract) to inhibit the activity of Cyp3A4 (and the Cyp450 family in general) or consuming large quantities of chargrilled meat to induce the activity Cyp450. DO NOT purposely do this in an attempt to increase the bioavailability of oral steroids. The Cyp450 family is incredibly important enzyme family that is involved in the metabolism (both activation and degradation depending) of statins, oral contraceptives, acetaminophen, anti-depressants, beta-blockers, antiarrhythmic agents, and many, many more. This can cause SEVERE adverse effects.
- Example: Acetaminophen (Tylenol) is often seen as hepatotoxic, it is not. One of the metabolites, NAPQI, is. Under normal conditions, NAPQI is produced in incredibly minor amounts. Alcohol induces Cyp450 enzyme family, which increases the breakdown of Tylenol into NAPQI, causing intensive acute liver damage which can often be fatal in high doses. In short, don’t nurse your hangover with Tylenol, use Advil instead… or better of just don’t drink alcohol.

17α-Alkylated Anabolic Steroids. These AAS contain a methyl or ethyl group on the C17α position, allowing for oral activation. This modification allows the drug to survive hepatic metabolism, limiting the amount of steroid that is broken down, allowing for more drug to reach the bloodstream. Without this modification, the drug is completely broken down by the liver, never reaching systemic circulation. This initial process is called First Pass Metabolism.
First pass metabolism: After a drug is swallowed, it is absorbed by the digestive system and enters the hepatic portal system. It is carried through the portal vein into the liver before it reaches the rest of the body. The liver metabolizes many drugs, sometimes to such an extent that only a small amount of active drug emerges from the liver to the rest of the circulatory system. This first pass through the liver may greatly reduce the bioavailability of the drug. Some oral steroids have a very low bioavailability due to first pass metabolism, thus injectable versions may be used to prevent the initial breakdown, effectively increase bioavailability and reducing liver stress.

Aside: There have been questions regarding sublingual administration of oral AAS in order to bypass first pass metabolism. In short, very few drugs can be properly absorbed sublingually, Nitroglycerin is a prime example. AAS, although can be manufactured for sublingual absorption it requires a specific method of delivery (sublingual tablets, strips, or sprays for example), which are difficult to obtain and manufacture; it’s not as simple as placing some powder under your tongue. Other drawbacks exist of sublingual administration such as tooth decay and difficulty in dose management.
Anavar: The exception to the rule: The oral bioavailability of oxandrolone is 97%. The drug is metabolized primarily by the kidneys and to a lesser extent by the liver. Oxandrolone is the only AAS that is not primarily or extensively metabolized by the liver, and this is thought to be related to its diminished hepatotoxicity relative to other AAS. For this reason, there is no reason to ever use injectable anavar (unless poking yourself that often is your kink, no judgement).
- https://books.google.com/books?id=hfwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=false
- https://books.google.com/books?id=dwMyBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA513#v=onepage&q&f=false

In short: Oral Steroid (active) -> Hepatic Breakdown -> Metabolite (inactive)

[aside: not all drugs are orally active, in fact the majority are inactive. For example, codeine (inactive) will be converted into the active form, Morphine, within the liver via Cyp450 enzymes]

In the case of oral AAS, hepatic metabolism can convert an active drug into its inactive form; C17α methylation prevents this. Why is this modification known to be hepatotoxic? The primary enzyme that normally breaks down hormonal steroids (such as endogenous DHEA, testosterone, estradiol, etc) is 17β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 17β-HSD, (and to a minor extent the Cyp450 family) which can no longer break down the methylated drug, thus the liver finds an alternative route for metabolism. The actual specific process is still relatively unknown, but involves a variety of oxidation reactions, inducing an increase of free oxygen radicals within the hepatocytes (liver cells), causing cell death due to oxidative stress.
There is another hypothesis which involves the presence of androgen receptors within the liver. The C17α methylated oral steroid, that is no longer properly broken down, will bind to these receptors, causing a drastic increase of androgenic activity within the liver, leading to hepatoxicity.
In my opinion, it is a mixture of both. Many studies show a direct correlation between the androgenic effect of the oral steroid and the amount of hepatoxicity. The exact link between the two is yet to be determined.
In general, the greater the affinity of C17α methylated oral steroid for the androgen receptor, the more hepatoxicity occurs.

Hepatotoxicity is an overlying term: the specifics related to AAS use are Cholestasis (blockage of biliary flow), Steatosis (accumulation of fatty lipids within the liver), Zonal Necrosis (hepatocyte death within a specific zone of the liver), and Peliosis Hepatitis (vascular lesions leading to liver enlargement).

Aside: Steatosis (fatty liver) has been an observed adverse effect of Nolvadex and Raloxifene
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548902/
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK548475/

Cholestasis is a condition where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum. It is the most common condition resulting from oral AAS use. In short, bile is continuously produced but cannot leave the liver, causing build up, backflow, and eventually hepatocyte death. Differential symptoms of cholestasis include but are not limited to pruritus (itchiness), jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes), pale stool, and dark urine.

Liver Functioning Tests: What do they mean and why are they relevant?
AST: Aspartate Transaminase: This alone is not a good indication of liver damage. AST is found in abundance within both cardiac and skeletal muscle. An elevated AST value can be caused by something as minor as weightlifting.
ALT: Alanine Transaminase: ALT is found specifically within the liver and is released into the plasma when significant liver stress, including hepatocyte death, occurs. An elevated value is of concern.

Aside: general rule of thumb (not always true) if both elevated are elevated and if AST>ALT in a ratio of 2:1, suspect alcohol/drug induced damage. If both values are elevated and if ALT>AST in a ratio of 2:1, suspect viral hepatitis.

ALP: Alkaline Phosphatase: ALP is found within the hepatobiliary ducts. An elevated value is commonly indicative of obstruction and bile buildup, signifying cholestasis.
GGT: Gamma-glutamyl Transferase: GGT is an enzyme that is found in many organs throughout the body, with the highest concentrations found in the liver. GGT is elevated in the blood in most diseases that cause damage to the liver or bile ducts.
5’-nucleotidase: The concentration of 5’-nucleotidase protein in the blood is often used as a liver function test in individuals that show signs of liver problems. ALP can be elevated due to both skeletal disorders and hepatic disorders. 5’-nucleosidase is elevated ONLY with hepatic stress, not skeletal, thus allowing for differentiation.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482279/

Putting it all together: Cholestasis can be suspected when there is an elevation of both 5'-nucleotidase and ALP enzymes. Normally GGT and ALP are anchored to membranes of hepatocytes and are released in small amounts in hepatocellular damage. In cholestasis, synthesis of these enzymes is induced, and they are made soluble. GGT is elevated because it leaks out from the bile duct cells due to pressure from inside bile ducts. As hepatocyte damage continues, ALT, AST, and unconjugated bilirubin will begin to rise.
In short: Initial liver stress causes 5’-nucleiotidase and ALP to rise, shortly after GGT rises, then finally AST and ALT rise. Thus, with only AST and ALT values, it is difficult to determine the cause and extent of hepatic damage.

Liver Support: NAC/TUDCA/Liv52
NAC: N-Acetyl Cystein
NAC is a prodrug of L-cysteine, a precursor of the biological antioxidant glutathione which is able to reduce free radicals within the body. Free radicals, which as discussed above, are associated with causing extensive hepatocyte damage due to the oxidative breakdown of C17α methylated AAS.
In addition to its antioxidant action, NAC acts as a vasodilator by facilitating the production and action of nitric oxide. This property is an important mechanism of action in the prophylaxis of contrast-induced nephropathy and the potentiation of nitrate-induced vasodilation.

Aside: NAC has been constantly used as an adjunct to multiple neurological disorders including Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, Multiple Sclerosis, Cerebral Ischemia, Alzheimer’s and MANY more due to the potent free radical trapping effect which prevent mitochondrial dysfunction.
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3967529/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20its%20antioxidant,induced%20vasodilation%20(Millea%202009)).

Multiple studies have constantly showed NAC decreasing liver functioning tests and improving liver function and mitigating cholestasis. NAC had the ability to vastly improve markers of kidney function and was actually able to even double the rate of sodium excretion, indicating that NAC is may be useful in preventing water retention.
In short, NAC has a vast number of benefits, including hepatoprotective (liver), nephroprotective (kidney), and neuroprotective (neural), and anti-inflammatory effects that have been constantly demonstrated thru literature. Moreover, NAC can and should be used for year-round support since the adverse effects are incredibly mild. There is absolutely NO reason to not be taking NAC.

TUDCA: Tauroursodeoxycholic acid
TUDCA is a bile acid taurine conjugate form of UDCA. As discussed above, during cholestasis, bile builds up, creating backflow and inducing hepatocyte death thru apoptosis. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is largely influenced by the mitochondria. If the mitochondria are distressed, they release the molecule cytochrome C. Cytochrome C initiates enzymes called caspases to propagate a cascade of cellular mechanisms to cause apoptosis. TUDCA prevents apoptosis with its role in the BAX pathway. BAX, a molecule that is translocated to the mitochondria to release cytochrome C, initiates the cellular pathway of apoptosis. TUDCA prevents BAX from being transported to the mitochondria, effectively inhibiting hepatocyte death.
Furthermore, TUDCA aids in the processing of toxic bile acids into less toxic forms, resulting in decreased liver stress, further preventing hepatocyte death. Moreover, TUDCA aids in the transport of bile from the liver into the duodenum, effectively unblocking the build up causing cholestasis. Finally, TUDCA has been proven to be an effective treatment for the necro-inflammatory effects of Hepatitis. Study after study has shown that TUDCA greatly improves liver enzyme values.
Why do we recommend only using TUDCA with hepatotoxic oral steroids? The idea is that TUDCA induces liver damage when there is no hepatotoxicity present… but after reading the above, does that make sense? It does not. I could not find any literature showing that TUDCA induces liver toxicity. The recommendation instead is due to the negative effects of TUDCA on cholesterol values. TUDCA has been shown to greatly decrease HDL levels when taken for extended periods of time. The idea is, if you have a healthy functioning liver, there is no reason to take TUDCA for long periods of time since all you’re doing is decreasing HDL values. That being said, after doing the research and seeing the vast benefits of TUDCA (included bellow, not a comprehensive list), I am beginning to change my perspective on TUDCA use with only hepatotoxic oral AAS.
In short, TUDCA prevents hepatocyte death, enhances hepatocyte function, exhibits anti-inflammatory effects on the liver, neutralizes toxic bile, and prevents bile build up that was caused by the alternative metabolism of C17α methylated AAS.
***THERE IS NO EVIDENCE THAT I HAVE COME ACROSS THAT SHOWS THAT TUDCA ITSELF INDUCES LIVER DAMAGE WHEN USED WITHOUT HEPATOTOXIC DRUGS**\*
TUDCA has a variety of other benefits outside the liver, but I will not go into them this time. In short:

Increasing glucose-induced insulin release via the cAMP/PKA pathway, increasing insulin sensitivity.
Relieving endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The ER makes sure proteins are folded properly.
Reducing programmed cell death (apoptosis) in healthy cells. TUDCA prevents the molecule BAX from reaching the mitochondria. BAX causes mitochondria to release cytochrome C, which causes enzymes (caspases) to initiate apoptosis.
Inactivating Bcl-2-associated death promoter (BAD), a molecule involved in apoptosis.
Removing toxic bile acids from the liver and preventing them from damaging liver cells
Exhibits neuroprotective effects via the inhibition of NF-kB
Preserve photoreceptor function and increases retinal health by increasing rd10

Sources

Liv52
Liv52 is an herbal liver support. There have been medical studies conducted on Liv.52 in recent years, many of which involve its ability to protect the liver from damage by alcohol or other toxins. Liv52 has been shown to exhibit antiperoxidative function, antioxidant effects, anti-inflammatory, diuretic effects and neutralization of toxic products within the liver.
“The results demonstrated that the patients treated with Liv-52 for 6 months had significantly better child-pugh score, decreased ascites, decreased serum ALT and AST. We conclude that Liv-52 possess hepatoprotective effect in cirrhotic patients. This protective effect of Liv-52 can be attributed to the diuretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and immunomodulating properties of the component herbs.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16194047/

“Liv.52 enhanced the rate of absorption of ethanol and rapidly reduced acetaldehyde levels, which may explain its hepatoprotective effect on ethanol-induced liver damage.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2065700/

“Liv.52 administration reduced the deleterious effects of ethanol. The concentration of acetaldehyde in the amniotic fluid of ethanol-consuming animals was 0.727 microgram/ml. Liv.52 administration lowered it to 0.244 microgram/ml. The protective effect of Liv.52 could be due to the rapid elimination of acetaldehyde.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8279671/

That being said, there is conflicting research on Liv52. The studies either show hepatoprotective function or no effect, positive or negative.
“There was no significant difference in clinical outcome and liver chemistry between the two groups at any time point. There were no reports of adverse effects attributable to the drug. Our results suggest that Liv.52 may not be useful in the management of patients with alcohol induced liver disease.”

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12499076/

In short, Liv52 can be used if you have the additional funds, it is not the end-all-be-all but can be used as an adjunct. It is an incredibly cheap drug that may improve liver function and exhibit hepatoprotective effects. IT SHOULD IN NO WAY YOUR ONLY LIVER SUPPORT MEDICATION, but there is nothing wrong with using it.

A Minor Breakthrough in the etymology of ‘Oedon’

Greetings Lore Hunters! I’d like to share some exciting thoughts.
First, a brief disclaimer:

I am a lore hunter who enjoys exploring thematic and symbolic similarities between all of the Miyazaki Directed games, with a focus on Bloodborne. And so, while this particular epiphany occurred to me while exploring DS1 terminology, the core idea that excites me relates specifically to Bloodborne. This is to say that to describe the point I’m going to outline will require me to reference a specific term from DS1, although I’m not seeking to draw any direct connection between the lore of the two games in this post!
I am long-winded, knowing this here is a brief outline of what’s to come:

The Red Herring details my initial exploration of Oedon’s etymological roots.
The Catch explores why I wasn’t satisfied by my initial findings.
The Epiphany sees me postulate a more fitting etymological derivative for Oedon. And
The Conclusion reflects on its implications.
Onward!
Like many lore hunters, one point of BB lore that has remained for the most part shrouded in mystery for me is the aptly named ‘Formless Oedon.’
First, a quick reference of the Oedon Rune descriptions:

General Description:

“Human or no, the oozing blood is a medium of the highest grade, and the essence of the formless Great One, Oedon. Both Oedon, and his inadvertent worshippers, surreptitiously seek the precious blood.”

Formless Oedon:

“The Great One Oedon, lacking form, exists only in voice, and is symbolized by this rune. Those who memorize it enjoy a larger supply of Quicksilver Bullets.”

Oedon Writhe:

“Writhe" sees a subtle mucous in the warmth of blood, and acknowledges visceral attacks as one of the darker hunter techniques.”
I’d like to take note of the overtly biological imagery present in these descriptions for now; ‘subtle mucous’ ‘oozing blood.’
The Red Herring
When I started long ago to look into the etymology of the word Oedon, back when I was busy compiling a Lore Hunters Starter Kit post for this subreddit’s FAQs, I focused in on the closest Anagramic word— specifically: ‘Odeon’ being the Ancient Greek word for a concert hall or something of the sort.
Naturally I was drawn in this direction by the references to Oedon being “Formless” and existing only in “Voice.” I thought it was a sure connection to this ancient Greek singing hall; after all Oedon is present in the Chapel, and Chapels are built to, among other things, allow the music of choirs and pipe organs to reverberate pristinely.
However, in an attempt to explore this connection to song in other aspects of Oedon, like the obvious effect he has on the Chapel Dwellers, or his innate connection with and search for blood as an ideal medium, I met sort of a dead end.
While I could glean some symbolic connection between song and voice as a way of giving form to the formless, it was more difficult to connect song with actual biological blood.
The closest attempt I made was to ponder some sort of connection between ‘blood echoes’ and song, as ‘echo’ is typically a descriptor for sound.
Arriving at that dead end I then embarked on a study of other areas of the game where sound, and specifically song, appeared important.
I briefly considered the eerie songs of the winter lanterns, and wondered if there could be a connection to Oedon there; but although the lanterns lurk about in Mensis, they also appear in the Frontier, and the fishing hamlet as well, so no direct connection to Oedon seemed likely on that front.
Further complicating the connection of Oedon to ‘Odeon’ is the fact that we encounter the ‘Oedon Writhe’ rune far away from the Chapel when we see Imposter Iosefka seemingly in heat. It can be argued that Imposter Iosefka was the inhabitant of the study below Oedon chapel before running away to the clinic after we defeat Gascoigne, but the importance of a Chapel as a place of song is somewhat diminished when we encounter Imposter Iosefka outside of it in her climax.
Likewise, another carrier of the Writhe rune, the child who leaves her house to seek the chapel never makes it there, so in her case a connection to the chapel as a theater for song is also questionable.
I do still hold the connection between Oedon and Song to be somewhat intriguing, but having found myself at dead ends I mostly filed it away as perhaps relevant, but not definitive to understanding Oedon’s form and motivations.
The Catch:
The itch that I was never able to scratch in my initial attempt to unpack the etymology of Oedon as ‘Odeon’ is this: Oedon is undeniably connected with fertility, and along with his ‘inadvertent followers,’ he seeks blood as a divine medium.
You see this is quite important, because when it comes to Gods and Mortals, it is very rare that we see Gods and Followers who seek the same thing. Usually, followers seek the god and the god seeks followers, it is unique that Oedon and his followers both seek blood as a holy medium.
Upon further consideration, if we take Oedon’s propensity to seek out either Female and/or Nurturing followers (the Chapel dweller exemplifying the exception as a male who is overwhelmingly kind and nurturing— parental) we can see that the relationship is less like a symbolic worshippegod relationship, and more like a MotheFather, relationship; a lovers relationship.
After all, we see a wide variety of archetypical depictions of child-rearing in the Chapel:

Arianna/Imposter Iosefka represent the lover; the women who successfully and not so successfully come to be impregnated by the Oedon’s essence in the holy medium of their Blood
Adella the nun as the jealous onlooker, bent against Arianna’s unique blood
The chapel Dweller as the caregiver, the nurturer who cares for and selects surrogates
The Lonely old woman as parental decline, infertility
The suspicious beggar, as the nest invader, striking “when the time is ripe.”
The Skeptical Man as a defense for the nest, seeking to turn away hunters by feeding them misinformation

It is clear to me that Oedon has a much closer thematic relationship to fertility and impregnation than he does to ambiguous ‘song.’
But alas, I couldn’t find a solid etymological connection between Formless Oedon and fertility, try as I might.
—Until tonight.
The Epiphany:
In a separate thread on the Dark Souls sub, I was discussing the motifs of archtrees and fire keepers throughout Miyazaki’s work.
In my discussion I referenced a particular segment of MatthewMatosis’s Dark Souls Commentary (timestamped at 1hr 45 mins-1hr 48mins for specific passage) which talks about the similarity of the word ‘Estus’ (as in: Estus Flask) to the word ‘Estrous.’
He explains that the word Estrous is most often seen defining the term ‘Estrous Cycle.’
Although I’m not a biologist, a layman’s description of the Estrous Cycle is roughly that it is the process in certain mammals of the female body undergoing cyclical changes beginning at sexual maturity and continuing on through the females lifecycle based on the action of reproductive hormones.
Estrogen being the active hormone triggering the Estrous cycle.
It’s important to note briefly that while they both operate from similar hormones produced by the pituitary, the estrous cycle is distinctly different from the Human Menstrual Cycle.
The key difference is that in the Estrous Cycle, the female resorbs the endometrium if fertilization doesn’t occur; to put it bluntly, estrous cycles don’t include periods. Human females, whose hormonal reproductive systems are Menstrual, expel the ovum if fertilization doesn’t occur; thus, periods.
The biological distinction is stark; an estrous mammal is generally able to conceive only when in heat; it emits pheromones, it voices mating calls, it writhes. But in human menstruation, periods of fertility might have latent expressions, but human females are able to conceive without being ‘in heat’ so to speak; the windows for conception are much wider.
I highlight this rough biology, because, to my utter disbelief, upon researching the ‘Estrous Cycle,’ I found that the Latin word that it derives from is—
Oestrus
And wouldn’t you know it; one meaning of the Latin derivative ‘Oestrus’ is—
‘Frenzy’
Couple that with the fact that the thing that most differentiates HUMAN reproduction from the Oestrus Cycle is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (known as menses)
Remember when we read the oedon Writhe description of ‘subtle mucous in the blood’?
And, although I am a male and it’s not my place to say, I imagine that the process of discharging Menses is somewhat of a Nightmare when it first occurs for young women.
Do you get my drift?
You see, my initial etymological mistake with looking at ‘Odeon’ as an anagram for ‘Oedon’ ignores the possibility of ‘Oedon’ as a derivative, or conjugation, of a word like ‘Oestrus.’
For in this light there are a wealth of connections between Bloodborne’s (funny name eh? Bloodborne) dark age of Humanity depicted in stark contrast to the age of fire (heat) depicted in Dark Souls.
The connections between Oedon and fertility are much stronger than Oedon and song.
This breakthrough also sheds new light on the Keeper of the Old Lords we encounter in the chalice dungeons. An enemy type that clearly mirrors imagery in Dark Souls of the witches of Izalith and fire shrine keepers.
For in their memory we see the old lords as reproducing via Estrous (or Oestrus) cycles, whereas humanity reproduces Via a Menstrual Cycle; note that while bloody discharge can sometimes occur in Estrous Mammals, It occurs monthly in menstrual mammals, cyclically discharging menses in phases often connected archetypically to the Lunar phases, a sort of Moon Presence. (Note that there is no scientific basis connecting lunar phases and menstrual cycles, but throughout dark ages of human understanding menstruation has often been attributed to lunar cycles simply as a result of the crude nature of early human calendar-keeping.)
Conclusion:
There is a lot to examine and unpack here, but one crude takeaway I have is this:
Given Miyazaki’s recurring motifs of birth, death and rebirth in all of his works, it gives me the idea that Bloodborne tells the story of Human Evolution as a second chapter to early mammalian reproductive evolution depicted in Dark Souls; that Bloodborne is the age of Humanity built upon foundations of the age of fire; our mammalian basis which we have transcended.
I could go on about the significance of the ‘Chalice’ as motif for the womb, and the chalice dungeons as a neurological history of The evolution of ‘womb’ throughout development of life in various ages, but I’ve gone on long enough already, so I’ll leave the discussion here, for now.
Miyazaki’s propensity to inspire this sort of learning and research, regardless of whether it’s intentional to the degree which I’ve outlined, is the thing that I most love about his design philosophy. I’m constantly flabbergasted at its depth and richness.
Hope this has been a fun read, please feel free to discuss, dissent and derive from the info here!
I hope you’re well in the waking world dear hoonter, the dream, as always, awaits you.
//TL:DR- Oedon derives from ‘Oestrus’ or Frenzy; seeking a fertile womb in heat to escape the nightmare of Mences.
/EDITi:
MatthewMatosis video link; added proper timestamped link. Spelling.
//EDITii:
WOW! The classic, go to bed after posting then wake up to find such incredible interest and discussion! I’m overwhelmed and very much look forward to reading and replying to fellow lore hunters! As soon as work allows I’ll get right on it! Added Roman numerals to edits
///EDITiii:
Adding a compendium of replies I’ve made to this post which further defend and characterize my view of Oedon’s relationship to the word ‘Oestrous’
Reply A: Providing my view on the usefulness of etymology in lore hunting, and the trap of grasping too eagerly for absolute understanding where there is none.
Reply B: Providing personal conceptualization of Oedon as possessing traits similar to human and mammalian hormonal impulses; classifying etymology of Runic transcriptions as based specifically in the race it preys upon; in bloodborne’s case Humanity as post-mammalian.
Reply C: Characterizing the difference between grammar and etymology. Noting the etymology of fictional words as possible composites of multiple origin languages. A detailed look into the origin of the Latin ‘Oestrus’ by tracing etymological roots Of conjugated Latin and Greek words beginning in ‘Oed’ and ‘Oe’.
Reply D: This meme I made for u/Traistas who’s words rang with a truth which only the most devoted Whirligig Masters would possess.
Reply E: Exploring theories regarding Oedon’s relationship to the Moon Presence. (Just for fun!)

Translating the Latin Document, 2020 style

Having been unsatisfied with the translations of the Latin document so far, and having studied Latin and several other dead tongues in University (Akkadian, Sumerian, Old English) I decided to take a crack at it.

This is notoriously difficult because the text is low resolution and illegible. A lot of work had to be done to first just to read the letters themselves.
There are many letters in lines 3 and 9 which could be anything, due to the especially small writing in the text.

Fortunately, I had a tool at my disposal. When you learn Akkadian, you learn Akkadian, Old Babylonian, Neo Assyrian, (usually in reverse order). As time went on, signs simplified, and by the time you get to Neo Assyrian, the signs barely resemble the Old Babylonian they are based on. BUT, they RESEMBLE THEM IN GENERAL SHAPE.

I remembered that when deciphering Linear B, they used a comparative method, identifying sign clusters, then comparing them to other words to see what they might indicate, such as noun endings.

I mixed these two things to try to come up with a clear alphabet from big, easily identifiable words written in lower case, and then compared them to the amorphous blobs in the small lines. Then there are some kerning issues. Lower case M is almost always followed by an unusually large space, for instance. That helps identify it.

Anyhow, after a lot of work, I am ... still not done (and may never be), but here is what I have so far.

=TRANSLITERATION MARKINGS=
_ means a letter I can't read.
(_) means possibly a letter, or possibly part of previous letter but I'm unsure
(?) means I'm unsure of the reading of the word correctly
(x) means I believe the letter is whatever I put, but am unsure.

=TENTATIVE TRANSLITERATION=

FEMINEM
QUATTUOR CRURA
MULTI_ _ _ (plex?) (_) ESUS/ERAT(?) _ _ B(?) (E/I) (A/N) (T) VIDER(E/O)(?) VIS(I/T)(A/O)(?) (P) (A/M) (O) (T) (O) (R) (R) (U) (I) TIS(?) (U) (E)CA(T) *
MOBILITER UVESCO CALLOSUS
PALLIDE COMPLEXIONIS. I I I METRIS.
PROFUNDE HAMI DEPRESSUS
QUODAM INFANTES MORTER SUNT
NO(S?) AUNCULUS CHARACTERES (AUNCULUS is a very strange word to find. AVUNCULUS is more common)
LIRA(?) INFANTES PRAVUS, SUIBUS(?) NOS(?) ??? (I'm unsure about every word here)
CRUCIS NON PROSUNT (should be CRUCES as CRUCIS means "cross's" and that's nonsense in this context)
PEDICAS OPERABERIS(2nd person future indicative active) ET NON _ _ GANIMUS FACIEM *
VI_ _ S _ _ S EXCITOS DELENIFICUS NOLITE

=NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION=

This line is a mess. I read so many possible words in here.

It could read
Multiplex eses/erat fabant videro vista parto or visia (?) motor ruitis u ecat? Which, I should note, is meaningless nonsense.
What's messing me up is the "vista parto ruitis" section which is too blurry to make out key letters.

I think the 2nd last word wants to be magnanimus but was maybe misspelled?

=TRANSLATION ATTEMPT=
(interpretative. Lines with * have an explanatory note below)

The woman
Four legs
There are many creases(?) ... we saw sight(?) (or maybe we saw birthed (something)), the mover you all rushed (?) ... (?) *
Mobile, wet, tough skin
pale complexion, 3 meters *
deep hooks sunk (hooks sunk deeply?) *
certain children are dead
?? We uncle characters ?? *
Rave, deformed babies, we pigs(?) ...? *
crosses are of no help *
you will work traps, and not ____ the face*
(??) do not summon sweetly? do not call seductively? Do not be sweetly aroused?

=NOTES ON TRANSLATION=

Based on the logic of the document, the first section is the "biology" section, the description of the 'four legged woman', I have opted to favor a reading which seems to be saying 'there are many folds', presumably in the woman's skin. I think the rest of the line is saying something like 'she she saw us she charged at us' or 'we saw her charge at anything she sees moving', but I really can't be sure.
III is the Latin numeral for 3, rather than a word like ILL.
possibly a reference to Virginia's feet, which are inward pointing hooks?
(characters here, like letters or markings... but still... also features which mark something, i.e. characteristics) Maybe it's non or nox, not nos? maybe they messed up in google translate when making the game?
(the only thing I'm semi confident about is parvus infantes. It seems like it wants to say "deformed, raving infants", referring to Virginia's screeching babies.)
(in the Latin, it's a plural present tense verb, and a singular genitive noun, so in English it looks dumb. CRUCIS means 'of the cross'. The sentence here would be "of the cross they are not useful." My guess is that whoever translated this into Latin used google or something and meant to say 'Crosses are of no use'.)
(operaberis is the 2nd person future indicative, so “you will work”, and pedicas is the plural accusative, making it the subject of the verb operaberis. Meaning “you will work traps”. It's unclear who the 2nd person verb subject is. In many languages the 2nd person verbal conjugation is also the imperative, but not the case in Latin. So I wonder if someone who created this document thought they were saying "Make traps!")

11-12. I think the last two lines are an exhortation to "make traps, don't look to god's magnanimous face, don't be excited by his sweetness", like "you're on your own, crosses don't work, make f*%king traps! God's not coming!"
=DISCUSSION=

The document seems to have three main parts.
Part 1 (lines 1-6) I would describe as the Biology Section. It describes the anatomy and characteristics of "the woman", presumably Virginia. It's erroneous in that Virginia has 6 legs. In the rest, however, it seems accurate. She has multiple legs, many folds in her skin, she's damp looking, her skin is tough (it makes the strongest armor!), she's pale in color, she has hooks for feet (maybe?), she attacks you if she sees you moving. This is my best guess anyway.

Part 2 (lines 8-9) seem to describe Virginia's babies themselves. The word AUNCULUS is absolutely bizarre. I learned AVUNCULUS in university, obviously, and I know AUNCULUS is an uncommon derivative of same, but ... uncle features? uncle characteristics? Uncle markings? Uncle scratchings? Your guess is as good as mine.

Part 3 (lines 10-12) appears to be conclusions drawn about the implications of this beast they've seen. There appears to be a command to "make traps", though two previous translations see that as "traps don't work", but the verbal mood is imperative, it's a command, not an observation. We get 'et non' right after, saying 'and not' then i word I can't figure out.
BUT MY GUESS is that there's a misspelling of magnanimus, and that the last two lines are saying, basically "MAKE TRAPS, don't look upon the magnanimous face from above and be sweetly seduced (by thinking he'll save you)", as in "Crosses do nothing, god's not helping, don't be lulled into a state of hope by prayer, MAKE TRAPS!"
I stress that there's a LOT of guesswork here, but I think the previous translations make some basic errors that are due to the low quality of the image of the document, not due to any failing of the translators. I know for a fact I am making some basic errors, but I think to some degree, the programmers made a few errors in the Latin on this document.

When I'm done my transliteration, I will send this to a friend of mine whose specialty is the study of old Latin texts which are often degraded and hard to read. He might have some answers.

I invite discussion! What do you all think?

"Love in the West is consumerist – we choose a partner to give us what we think we need. But Russians do things differently."

Article 'Romantic regimes' by Polina Aronson, a sociologist who was born in St Petersburg and lives in Berlin. Published here: https://aeon.co/essays/russia-against-the-western-way-of-love

In 1996 I left Russia for the first time to spend a school year in the United States. It was a prestigious scholarship; I was 16 and my parents were very excited about the possibility of my somehow slipping into Yale or Harvard afterwards. I, however, could think of only one thing: getting an American boyfriend.
In my desk, I kept a precious document of American life, sent to me by a friend who had moved to New York a year earlier: an article about the Pill, ripped from the US girls’ magazine Seventeen. I read it lying in bed, feeling my throat getting dry. Staring into its glossy pages, I dreamed that there, in a different country, I would turn into someone beautiful, someone boys turned their heads for. I dreamed that I would need this kind of pill, too.
Two months later, on my first day at Walnut Hills High School in Cincinnati, Ohio, I went to the library and borrowed a stack of Seventeens that stood taller than me. I was determined to find out precisely what happened between American boys and girls when they started liking each other, and what I was supposed to say and do in order to reach the stage when ‘the Pill’ would prove necessary. Armed with a highlighter and a pen, I looked for words and expressions that had to do with American conduct in courtship and wrote them out on separate cards, just like my English teacher in St Petersburg had taught me.
I soon gathered that the lifecycle of a Seventeen-approved relationship went through several clear stages. First, you developed a ‘crush’, normally on a boy a year or two older than yourself. Then, you asked around a bit to establish whether he was a ‘cutie’ or a ‘moron’. If he was the former, Seventeen gave you thumbs up to ‘hook up’ with him once or twice after ‘asking him out’. Throughout the process, several boxes needed to be ticked: did you feel like the young man ‘respected your needs’? Were you comfortable ‘asserting your rights’ – in particular, refusing or initiating ‘body contact’? How was the ‘communication’? If any of the boxes remained unticked, you would ‘dump’ him and start looking for a replacement, until someone who was ‘good boyfriend material’ came along. Then you would start ‘making out on the couch’ and graduate into a Pill‑user.
Sitting in the American school library, I stared at my dozens of handwritten notes and saw an abyss opening up: a gulf between the ideals of love that I had grown up with and the exotic stuff I was now encountering. Where I came from, boys and girls were ‘falling in love’ and ‘seeing each other’; the rest was a mystery. The teen film drama that my generation of Russians grew up with – a socialist replica of Romeo and Juliet set in a Moscow commuter neighbourhood – was deliciously unspecific when it came to declarations of love. To express his feelings for the heroine, the protagonist recited the multiplication tables: "Two times two is four. It is as certain as my love. Three times three is nine. That means you are mine. And two times nine is 18, and that’s my favourite number because at 18 we will get married."
What else was there to say? Not even our 1,000-page Russian novels could match the complexity of Seventeen’s romantic system. When engaging in love affairs, the countesses and officers were not exactly eloquent; they acted before they spoke, and afterwards, if they weren’t dead as a result of their hasty undertakings, they gazed around speechless and scratched their heads in search of explanations.
Although I did not yet have a PhD in sociology, it turned out that what I had been doing with the copies of Seventeen was exactly the kind of work that sociologists of emotion perform in order to understand how we conceptualise love. By analysing the language of popular magazines, TV shows and self-help books and by conducting interviews with men and women in different countries, scholars including Eva Illouz, Laura Kipnis and Frank Furedi have demonstrated clearly that our ideas about love are dominated by powerful political, economic and social forces. Together, these forces lead to the establishment of what we can call romantic regimes: systems of emotional conduct that affect how we speak about how we feel, determine ‘normal’ behaviours, and establish who is eligible for love – and who is not.
The clash of romantic regimes was precisely what I was experiencing on that day in the school library. The Seventeen girl was trained for making decisions about whom to get intimate with. She rationalised her emotions in terms of ‘needs’ and ‘rights’, and rejected commitments that did not seem compatible with them. She was raised in the Regime of Choice. By contrast, classic Russian literature (which, when I was coming of age, remained the main source of romantic norms in my country), described succumbing to love as if it were a supernatural power, even when it was detrimental to comfort, sanity or life itself. In other words, I grew up in the Regime of Fate.
These two regimes are based on opposing principles. Both of them turn love into an ordeal in their own ways. Nevertheless, in most middle-class, Westernised cultures (including contemporary Russia), the Regime of Choice is asserting itself over all other forms of romance. The reasons for this appear to lie in the ethical principles of neo-liberal, democratic societies, which regard freedom as the ultimate good. However, there is strong evidence that we need to re-consider our convictions, in order to see how they might, in fact, be hurting us in invisible ways.
To understand the triumph of choice in the romantic realm, we need to see it in the context of the Enlightenment’s broader appeal to the individual. In economics, the consumer has taken charge of the manufacturer. In faith, the believer has taken charge of the Church. And in romance, the object of love has gradually become less important than its subject. In the 14th century, gazing at Laura’s golden tresses, Petrarch had called the recipient of his affections ‘divine’ and believed her to be the most sublime proof of God‘s existence. Some 600 years later, another man bedazzled by a different heap of golden tresses – Thomas Mann’s Gustav von Aschenbach – concluded that it was he, not the handsome Tadzio, who was the touchstone of love:
"[T]he lover was nearer the divine than the beloved; for the god was in the one but not in the other – perhaps the tenderest, most mocking thought that ever was thought, and source of all the guile and secret bliss the lover knows."
This observation from Mann’s novella Death in Venice (1912) encapsulates a great cultural leap that occurred somewhere close to the beginning of the 20th century. Somehow, the Lover pushed the Beloved from the centre of attention. The divine, unknowable and unreachable Other is no longer the subject of our love stories. Instead, we are interested in the Self, with all its childhood traumas, erotic dreams and idiosyncrasies. Examining and protecting this fragile Self by teaching it to pick its affections properly is the main project of the Regime of Choice – a project brought to fruition using a popularised version of psychotherapeutic knowledge.
The most important requirement for choice is not the availability of multiple options. It is the existence of a savvy, sovereign chooser who is well aware of his needs and who acts on the basis of self-interest. Unlike all previous lovers who ran amok and acted like lost children, the new romantic hero approaches his emotions in a methodical, rational way. He sees an analyst, reads self-help literature and participates in couples counselling. Moreover, he might learn ‘love languages’, read into neuro-linguistic programming, or quantify his feelings by marking them on a scale from 1 to 10. The American philosopher Philip Rieff called this type ‘the psychological man’. In Freud: The Mind of a Moralist (1959), Rieff describes him as "anti-heroic, shrewd, carefully counting his satisfactions and dissatisfactions, studying unprofitable commitments as the sins most to be avoided". The psychological man is a romantic technocrat who believes that the application of the right tools at the right time can straighten out the tangled nature of our emotions.
This, of course, applies to both genders: the psychological woman also follows the rules, or, rather The Rules: Time-tested Secrets for Capturing the Heart of Mr Right (1995). Here are just some of the time-tested secrets assembled by its authors Ellen Fein and Sherrie Schneider:
Rule 2. Don’t Talk to a Man First (and Don’t Ask Him to Dance) Rule 3. Don’t Stare at Men or Talk Too Much Rule 4. Don’t Meet Him Halfway or Go Dutch on a Date Rule 5. Don’t Call Him and Rarely Return His Calls Rule 6. Always End Phone Calls First
The premise of The Rules is simple: because men are genetically wired to chase women, if women show them even the tiniest degree of empathy or interest, this has the effect of upsetting the biological equilibrium, ‘emasculating’ the man and reducing the woman to the status of a miserable abandoned she-animal.
The Rules has been criticised for an almost idiotic degree of biological determinism. Nevertheless, new editions continue to appear, and the ‘hard-to-get’ femininity that it advocates has become a commonplace of modern dating advice. Why does it remain so popular? The reason surely lies in its underlying message:
"One of the greatest payoffs of doing The Rules is that you grow to love only those who love you. If you have been following the suggestions in this book, you have learned to take care of yourself. […] You are busy with interests and hobbies and dating, and you are not calling or chasing men. […] You love with your head, not just your heart."
In the Regime of Choice, the no-man’s land of love – that minefield of unreturned calls, ambiguous emails, erased dating profiles and awkward silences – must be minimised. No more pondering ‘what if’ and ‘why’. No more tears. No more sweaty palms. No more suicides. No more poetry, novels, sonatas, symphonies, paintings, letters, myths, sculptures. The psychological man or woman needs only one thing: steady progress towards a healthy relationship between two autonomous individuals who satisfy each other’s emotional needs – until a new choice sets them apart.
This triumph of choice is also bolstered by socio-biological arguments. Lifelong captivity in a bad relationship, we are told, is for Neanderthals. Helen Fisher, a professor of anthropology at Rutgers University and the world’s most famous love researcher, suggests that we have outgrown our millennia-long agricultural heritage, and no longer need monogamous relationships. We are now evolutionarily impelled to seek different partners for different needs – if not simultaneously, then at different stages of our lives. Fisher celebrates the modern lack of pressure to commit: we should all, ideally, spend at least 18 months with someone to decide whether they are good for us and whether we make a good match. With the absolute availability of contraceptives, unwanted pregnancies and disease can be fully eradicated; childbearing is fully disengaged from courtship, and so we can take the time to give our potential partner a test-drive without fear of the consequences.
Compared with other historical conventions about romance, the Regime of Choice might seem like a Gore-Tex jacket next to a hair shirt. Its greatest promise is that love needn’t cause pain. According to the polemics that Kipnis develops in Against Love (2003), the only suffering the Regime of Choice recognises is the supposedly productive strain of ‘working on a relationship’: tears shed in the couples therapist‘s room, wretched attempts at conjugal sex, daily inspection of mutual needs, the disappointment of a break-up with someone who is ‘not good for you’. You are allowed to have sore muscles but you cannot have accidents. By making heartbroken lovers into the authors of their own trouble, popular advice produces a new form of social hierarchy: an emotional stratification based on the misidentification of maturity with self-sufficiency.
And this, argues Illouz, is precisely why 21st-century love still hurts. First, we lack the legitimacy of those love-torn duelists and suicides of the previous centuries. They at least enjoyed social recognition based on the general understanding of love as a mad, inexplicable force that not even the strongest minds can resist. Nowadays, yearning for a specific pair of eyes (or legs, for that matter) is no longer a valid occupation, and so one’s love pangs are exacerbated by the consciousness of one’s social and psychological inadequacy. From the perspective of the Regime of Choice, the heart-broken Emmas, Werthers and Annas of the 19th century are not simply inept lovers – they are psychologically illiterate, if not evolutionarily passé. Mark Manson, a relationship coach with more than 2 million readers online, writes:
"Romantic sacrifice is idealised in our culture. Show me almost any romantic movie and I’ll show you a desperate and needy character who treats themselves like dog shit for the sake of being in love with someone."
In the Regime of Choice, committing oneself too strongly, too early, too eagerly is a sign of an infantile psyche. It shows a worrying readiness to abandon the self-interest so central to our culture.
Second, and even more importantly, the Regime of Choice is blind to structural limitations that make some people less willing – or less able – to choose than others. This occurs not only because we have unequal endowments of what the British sociologist Catherine Hakim calls ‘erotic capital’ (that is, some of us are prettier than others). In fact, the biggest problem about choice is that whole groups of individuals might, actually, be disadvantaged by it.
Illouz, a professor of sociology at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, has argued persuasively that the individualistic appeal of the Regime of Choice tends to cast the desire for commitment as ‘loving too much’ – that is, loving against one’s own self-interest. Although enough broken-hearted men are pathologised for their ‘neediness’ and ‘inability to let go’, it is mostly women who fall into categories of ‘co-dependent’ and ‘immature’. Across class and race, they are trained to make themselves self-sufficient – to ‘not love too much’, to just ‘celebrate themselves’ (per the The Rules, above).
The trouble is, a bubble bath cannot substitute for a loving gaze or a long-awaited phone call, let alone make you pregnant – whatever Cosmo might suggest. Sure enough, you can have IVF and grow into an inspiringly mature, wonderfully independent single mother of thriving triplets. But the greatest gift of love – the recognition of one’s worth as an individual – is an essentially social matter. For that, you need a significant Other. You’ve got to drink a lot of Chardonnay to circumvent this plain fact.
But perhaps the greatest problem with the Regime of Choice stems from its misconception of maturity as absolute self-sufficiency. Attachment is infantilised. The desire for recognition is rendered as ‘neediness’. Intimacy must never challenge ‘personal boundaries’. While incessantly scolded to take responsibility for our own selves, we are strongly discouraged from taking any for our loved ones: after all, our interference in their lives, in the form of unsolicited advice or suggestions for change, might prevent their growth and self-discovery. Caught between too many optimisation scenarios and failure options, we are faced with the worst affliction of the Regime of Choice: self-absorption without self-sacrifice.
Where I come from, however, we have the opposite problem: self-sacrifice often comes without much self-examination at all. Julia Lerner, an Israeli sociologist of emotions at Ben Gurion University of the Negev, recently conducted a study into the ways that Russians talk about love. The purpose of her research was to find out whether, as a result of the post-communist, neo-liberal turn, the gap between Seventeen magazine and the Tolstoy novel had finally started to close. The answer is: not really.
Having analysed discussions in various TV talk shows, conducted interviews and done content analysis of the Russian press, she established that, to Russians, love remains "a destiny, a moral act and a value; it is irresistible, it requires sacrifice and implies suffering and pain". Indeed, whereas the concept of maturity that lies at the heart of the Regime of Choice regards romantic pain as an aberration and a sign of poor decision-making, the Russians consider maturity to be the capacity to bear that very pain, sometimes to an absurd degree.
A middle-class American who falls in love with a married woman is advised to break up with the lady and to schedule 50 hours of therapy. A Russian in a similar situation, however, storms the woman’s house and pulls her out by the hand, straight from the hob with stewing borsch, past crying children and a husband frozen with game controller in hand. Sometimes, it goes well: I know a couple who have been together happily for 15 years since the day he kidnapped her from a conjugal New Year’s feast. But in most cases, the Regime of Fate produces mess.
In terms of bulk numbers, Russians have a greater number of marriages, divorces and abortions per capita than any other developed country. These statistics document an impetus to do whatever it takes to act upon emotions, and often at the cost of one’s own comfort. Russian romance is closely accompanied by substance abuse, domestic violence and abandoned children: the by-products of lives that were never really thought through very clearly. Apparently, believing in fate each time you fall in love is not such a great alternative to excessive choice.
But to solve the afflictions of our culture, we do not need to give up on the principle of choice altogether. Instead, we must dare to choose the unknown, to take uncalculated risks and be vulnerable. By ‘vulnerability’ I do not mean the coquettish exposure of weaknesses meant to test the compatibility between you and your date. My plea is for existential vulnerability, for the re-mystification of love into what it essentially is: an unpredictable force that usually catches you unawares.
If the understanding of maturity as self-sufficiency is so detrimental to the way we love under the Regime of Choice, then it is precisely this understanding that needs to be reconsidered. To become truly adult, we need to embrace the unpredictability that loving someone other than ourselves entails. We should dare to cross those personal boundaries and run one step ahead of ourselves; not at a Russian pace, maybe, but just slightly quicker than we are used to.
So. Make loud love proposals. Move in with someone before feeling completely ready for it. Grumble at a partner for no reason and have that person grumble back, just like that, because we are human. Have a child when the timing seems bad. And finally, we need to re-claim our right to pain. Let us dare to agonise about love. As Brené Brown, a sociologist studying vulnerability and shame at the University of Houston, suggests, perhaps "our capacity for whole-heartedness can never be greater than our willingness to be broken-hearted". Rather than obsessing over the integrity of our selves, we need to learn to give parts of those selves to others – and acknowledge, finally, that we are dependent on each other, even if a Seventeen columnist might call it co-dependent.

conjugation meaning in biology video

Conjugation Definition: In process called conjugation, DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells (usually. Conjugation Explanation: Conjugation is transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell, to learn online university courses. A type of sexual reproduction in single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and some algae and fungi, in which two organisms or cells from the same species join together to exchange genetic material before undergoing cell division. 0. 0. Conjugation definition: Conjugation is the changing of a verb’s form to express a different person, number, tense, aspect, or gender. What is Conjugation? In order to communicate in more than one tone, verbs must be conjugated. To conjugate something is to change a verb’s form to express a different meaning. Leave a Comment / Microbiology / By Supriya N. Bacterial conjugation is a gene transfer mechanism, first introduced by the scientists named Lederberg and Tatum in the year 1946. The conjugation method was first studied in Escherichia coli. The formation of a conjugation tube is the characteristic feature in a conjugation mechanism. Definition. noun, plural: conjugations. (biology) (1) The process whereby two ciliate s come together in a temporary fusion to exchange micronuclear material, then separate, each being a fertilized cell. (2) A form of sexual reproduction in certain algae and fungi where a male gamete unites with a female gamete resulting in the union of their ... Conjugation is the transfer of a plasmid or other self-transmissible DNA element and sometimes chromosomal DNA from a donor cell to a recipient cell via direct contact usually mediated by a conjugation pilus or sex pilus. Recipients of the DNA transferred by conjugation are called transconjugants. Why is Conjugation Necessary? B Lymphocytes produce antibodies against foreign antigens that they encounter. However, the antigen must be large enough that the immune system will mount a humoral response – meaning a response involving antibodies secreted by B cells. Bacterial conjugation is a way by which a bacterial cell transfers genetic material to another bacterial cell. The genetic material that is transferred through bacterial conjugation is a small plasmid, known as F-plasmid (F for fertility factor), that carries genetic information different from that which is already present in the chromosomes of the bacterial cell. Conjugation, in biology, sexual process in which two lower organisms of the same species, such as bacteria, protozoans, and some algae and fungi, exchange nuclear material during a temporary union ( e.g., ciliated protozoans), completely transfer one organism’s contents to the other organism (bacteria and some algae), or fuse together to form one ... Biology The fusion of two gametes, especially when they are of a similar size. ‘Failure of mating pairs to mix cytoplasms during conjugation is diagnostic of a complete block in cell fusion.’. More example sentences.

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This video is unavailable. Watch Queue Queue. Watch Queue Queue Video shows what -fier means. One which or who act the stem.. -fier Meaning. How to pronounce, definition audio dictionary. How to say -fier. Powered by MaryTTS, Wiktionary. This video “DNA Exchange: Transformation, Conjugation & Transduction” is part of the Lecturio course “Microbiology” WATCH the complete course on http://lec... For the Love of Physics - Walter Lewin - May 16, 2011 - Duration: 1:01:26. Lectures by Walter Lewin. They will make you ♥ Physics. Recommended for you Video shows what prophage means. The latent form of a bacteriophage in which the viral genome is inserted into the host chromosome.. Prophage Meaning. How to pronounce, definition audio dictionary ... Enjoy the videos and music you love, upload original content, and share it all with friends, family, and the world on YouTube. Join the Amoeba Sisters as they compare and contrast asexual reproduction with sexual reproduction. This video has a handout here: http://www.amoebasisters.c... Bacterial Conjugation - Hfr, f prime and f plasmid - Duration: 16:53. Shomu's Biology 250,661 views. 16:53. The first 20 hours ... The Meaning of Ramanujan and His Lost Notebook - Duration: 1:20 ... Electronic Transitions, Chromophores, Auxochromes, Red and Blue Shift, Effect of Conjugation, Effect of Geometrical isomerism, Woodward-Fisher Rule, Fiser-Kuhn Rule. metabolism is the protective biochemical process by which our bodies alter xenobiotics either enzymatically or nonenzymatically. generally, drug metabolism b...

conjugation meaning in biology

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